home Diets and weight loss What is a person's work activity? Human labor activity: concept, components and features

What is a person's work activity? Human labor activity: concept, components and features

Topic 1. Subject and objectives of the discipline. types of labor activity, basics of labor physiology.

1. Subject, structure, content of the course.

2. General concepts about human labor activity

3. Fundamentals of labor physiology

Subject, structure, content of the course.

“Fundamentals of labor protection” is a complex discipline that is based on both general education (physics, chemistry, mathematics) and general technical and special disciplines (strength of materials, electrical engineering, technology and production equipment).

The discipline is especially closely related to life safety, scientific organization of labor, ergonomics, engineering psychology and technical aesthetics. All of the above-mentioned disciplines belong to a complex of sciences that study man in the labor process. These disciplines have a common goal - to help increase labor productivity, maintain health, and reduce the influence of unfavorable factors.

The course methodology is scientific analysis working conditions, technological processes, production equipment, workplaces, labor operations, production organization in order to identify harmful and dangerous production factors of possible occurrence emergency situations. Based on this analysis, measures are developed to eliminate unfavorable production factors and create safe and harmless working conditions.

The main goal of the course is to equip future specialists with knowledge on the basics of labor protection, the implementation of which in practice will help improve working conditions, increase productivity, and prevent occupational diseases, industrial injuries, and accidents.

Basic concepts and terms of labor protection, their characteristics:

In DSTU 2293-93 “Labor safety. Terms and Definitions” defines the basic concepts and terms in labor protection.

Occupational Safety and Health is a system of legal, socio-economic, organizational, technical, sanitary, hygienic, therapeutic and preventive measures and means aimed at preserving human health and performance during the labor process.

Working conditions– a set of factors in the production environment and the production process that influence human health and performance during the labor process.

Harmful production factor- a factor whose impact on a worker under certain conditions leads to illness or decreased performance.

Hazardous production factor- a factor whose impact on a worker under certain conditions leads to injury or other sudden sharp deterioration in health.

Subdivided:

· physical (moving machines and mechanisms, increased dust and gas pollution in the air, increased or decreased temperature in the room, as well as equipment and parts, increased levels of noise, vibration, ultrasound, infrasonic vibrations, humidity, increased electromagnetic field, humidity, insufficient illumination of premises and etc.);

· chemical (this includes chemicals that have a harmful effect on the body and are divided into: generally toxic, irritating, sensitizing, carcinogenic, mutagenic, affecting the reproductive function of the body.);

· biological (pathogenic microorganisms - bacteria, viruses, microscopic fungi, and their metabolic products; as well as macroorganisms - animals and plants);

· psychophysical – this includes overload of the body: physical (static and dynamic) and neuropsychic (mental overstrain, overstrain of the senses, monotony of work, emotional overload).

Work injury– violation of the anatomical integrity of the human body or its functions as a result of exposure to production factors.

Classified:

By type of traumatic agent: mechanical, thermal, chemical, radiation, electrical, combined, etc.;

For production material reasons (media) of injury: moving parts of equipment, finished products, production waste;

According to the location of the injury: injuries to the eyes, head, limbs, torso;

By severity: mild, severe, fatal;

For technological operations – lifting operations, cargo transportation and others.

Accident at work– a sudden impact on an employee of a hazardous production factor or environment, resulting in harm to health or death.

Occupational Illness– a pathological condition of a person caused by work and associated with excessive stress on the body or the adverse effects of harmful production factors.

Work-related diseases– this is a group of diseases, the course of which is aggravated by working conditions, and their frequency exceeds that of workers who are not exposed to certain occupational hazards.

General concepts about human labor activity

The concepts of “labor activity” and “person” are inextricably linked throughout the entire historical development of man as a biological species and humanity as a social community. It was through labor activity that Homo erectus (upright man) became Homo sapiens (reasonable man) in the course of long evolution.

Let us remind you that activity– a form of activity specific to a person, aimed at the expedient transformation of the surrounding world to satisfy certain needs of the individual or society.

The most important form of activity is labor activity.

Labor activity- this is a conscious, purposeful human activity that requires effort and is aimed at transforming the surrounding world to satisfy certain needs of an individual or society, including the production of certain goods or the provision of services.

The basis of work activity is simple labor process carried out by a working person ( subject of labor) by transformation subject of labor by using means of labor And tools V product of labor.

The simple process of labor so completely, vividly and clearly personifies the process of transforming the external world by man that it is often called simply labor.

Physical work– one of the main forms of the simple labor process, which is characterized by a significant predominance of a person’s physical stress over mental stress. When working physically, a person uses muscular energy and strength to “activate” means and tools of labor and partially “controls” this “action.”

Physical labor may require significant physical effort(lifting and moving heavy objects) or high tension when some movement must be performed at a high rhythm, or endurance, if a certain action must be performed for a long time.

Brainwork- the second of the main forms of the simple labor process, which is characterized by the predominance of a person’s mental (mental) load over the physical (muscular) load. In the process of mental work, a person mainly uses his intellectual capabilities. Mental work can also be reproductive, formulaic, routine, monotonous and uninteresting.

Technical progress reduces the role of physical labor in the production process and increases the role of mental labor. In this case, some problems disappear, but others inevitably arise.

The operator is responsible for timely recognition of signal information and acceptance the right decision(driver, electric locomotive driver, airplane pilot, dispatcher, etc.), the speed of changing situations (airport dispatcher), the incessant monotony of reproductive work that requires attention and concentration (supermarket cashier), and much more put new problems of facilitating mental work on the agenda day of the 21st century.

The nature of the organization of work changes significantly when, instead of one person, several people work together. Everyone knows well that organizing the work of one, two, three or more people are completely different tasks that introduce their own problems into the planned implementation of a simple labor process.

However, the work of a large number of people, work in society, differs significantly from the work of one person not only in its organization, but also in the presence of social-labor relations associated with the simple process of labor.

These relations reflect the forms and methods of attraction to labor, distribution of labor functions between people, distribution of the product of labor and participation of workers in the management of organizations; methods of maintaining labor discipline; ways to create healthy and safe conditions during work, etc.

Man is a social being, and labor is the source of all wealth, and therefore has a dual character. It not only acts as a simple process of labor to transform material world, but also how social attitude(often said social-labor relationship) of people participating (directly or indirectly) in it.

Social (or socio-economic) nature labor is determined by the form of ownership of the means of production. On this basis they distinguish private labor(owner or tenant) and hired labor.

Private labor- this is the work of the owner of the means of production or their tenant for himself (and at his own peril and risk). At the same time, the social nature of labor remains unchanged regardless of whether the product of labor is intended for sale (commodity production) or for personal consumption (subsistence farming). The person engaged in this work is at the same time the owner of the means of production, its organizer and performer (worker).

Wage labor- this is work employee(owning only its own labor force) in the interests of the employer ( employer), who owns or leases the means of production and acts as the organizer of production. Such work is carried out for some kind of remuneration (most often wages). In this case, the relationship between the employee and the employer can be considered as a transaction for the purchase and sale of labor (hiring) for labor market. For the employee, hired labor is a source of livelihood, and for the employer it is a source of profit and a source of wealth.

The global and general division of labor, the unbridled growth of the scale of modern commodity production have led to the dominance of wage labor, often called professional work, that is, by labor in one profession or another.

Fundamentals of labor physiology

Like any other activity, labor activity is fraught with dangers, including to the life and health of a person engaged in the simple process of labor. To resist them, you need to know the structure and functioning of the human body. This is the subject of the next question in our course.

Modern man has gone through a long evolutionary path of adaptation to the environment. The human body is a single whole, all systems and organs of which develop and function in mutual dependence and conditionality.

All body systems consist of various organs that are functionally interconnected with each other. Organs are built from various tissues, consisting of cells and intercellular substance, where various biochemical processes occur. Each organ has blood vessels, and most also have lymphatic vessels. Nerves approach and branch into all organs.

The musculoskeletal system forms musculoskeletal system human and ensures the autonomy of the body, the ability to perform various movements and move in space. In addition, bones, muscles and skin provide protection internal organs from direct influence of the external environment. In particular, the heart and lungs are protected by the rib cage and the muscles of the chest and back; abdominal organs (stomach, intestines, kidneys) - lower spine, pelvic bones, back and abdominal muscles; The brain is protected by the skull bone, and the spinal cord is hidden in the spinal canal.

The supporting, motor and protective functions are performed by the skeleton, consisting of 206 bones and their joints. The skeleton can be divided into two parts: the axial skeleton (bones of the head, neck and torso) and the accessory skeleton (bones of the upper and lower extremities and their girdles - the shoulder and pelvis).

Bones consist of spongy bone tissue, covered on the outside with periosteum, the outer layer of which has a protective function, and the inner layer contains nerve fibers and blood vessels. A simple bruise of the periosteum is fraught with its damage and inflammation.

All bones connect to each other. These joints can be divided into two groups: continuous joints that do not have a cavity, and discontinuous joints that have a cavity - joints. Continuous joints are formed by connective tissue (joint bones of the skull) or cartilage (vertebral body). Discontinuous connections - joints - are formed inside the joint capsule, and the bones that form the joints are connected by very strong ligaments of connective tissue.

Everything in the human body is “designed” for normal everyday stress. With a sudden movement with a significant amplitude, the muscles and ligaments are stretched more than usual, and a sprain. Individual fibers may even break, causing severe pain and the formation of a bruise near the joint - hematoma. Moreover, if the movement with a large amplitude in the “forbidden” direction is unsuccessful, dislocation is possible - the articular head coming out of the articular cavity, which is sometimes accompanied by sprains of ligaments and muscles, and even rupture of the joint capsule. Torn ligaments cause a lot of trouble because they are very difficult to recover.

Muscles are anatomical structures with the help of which movement is carried out. The key to this is their ability to contract under the influence of nerve signals. Muscles become most elastic when they are warm. Therefore, intense physical work should always begin with a slight warm-up of the muscles. Warm muscles should be protected from cooling, for example, by a draft. Exposure to cold on heated muscles can lead to myositis (“cold” muscles), or even muscle neuralgia. After intense physical activity, lactic acid accumulates in the muscles. In small quantities this is ok. In large cases, lactic acid can cause irreversible damage to muscle tissue.

Muscles have tendons at both ends through which they are attached to bones. Tendons can withstand greater strain when stretched. A damaged tendon, like a ligament, is poorly restored, unlike quickly healing bone.

The skeleton, together with the muscles, supports all other organs, gives the body a certain shape and position in space, and forms the motor apparatus. In this case, the bones of the skeleton play a passive role, and the striated muscles play an active role. Certain parts of the skeleton, for example, the skull and spine, protect other organs (the brain and spinal cord) from mechanical influences. Many muscles also play the same protective role.

An important protective function in the body is performed by the skin and various mucous membranes that are in direct contact with the external environment. In addition to its protective functions, the skin is involved in metabolism and heat regulation.

The heart and blood vessels form a closed system through which blood moves due to contractions of the heart muscle and vessel walls. Blood vessels are divided into three main types: arteries, capillaries and veins.

Arteries carry blood away from the heart. They branch into vessels of ever smaller diameter, through which blood flows to all parts of the body. Closer to the heart, the arteries have the largest diameter (about the size of a thumb); in the limbs they are the size of a pencil. In the parts of the body furthest from the heart, the blood vessels are so small that they can only be seen under a microscope. It is these microscopic vessels, capillaries, that supply cells with oxygen and nutrients. After which the blood, loaded with the end products of metabolism, is sent to the heart through a network of vessels called veins, and from the heart to the lungs, where gas exchange occurs, as a result of which the blood is saturated with oxygen.

Damage to capillaries is an unpleasant fact, but not dangerous. Under normal conditions, bleeding from a damaged capillary stops within a few seconds. Damage to the artery can result in rapid loss of large amounts of blood and death.

The heart is a powerful four-chambered muscular organ that pumps blood through a system of cavities and valves into the circulatory system. The heart, located in the chest, is quite reliably protected from most mechanical damage to the body. However, it is not protected from severe stress or emotional stress. Heart disease is one of the leading causes of human mortality.

The lymphatic system returns tissue fluids that have not leaked into the capillaries to the circulatory system. These fluids enter the lymphatic capillaries, then the lymph passes through the ducts The lymph nodes, and from there - into the subclavian vein.

Respiratory, digestive and excretory system provide consumption from environment vital substances and removal of metabolic products (biochemical vital processes).

The respiratory system carries out gas exchange between the body and the external environment - external respiration, which is the exchange of gases between the blood flowing through the pulmonary circulation and the external environment. External respiration is carried out entirely in the alveoli of the lungs, which are surrounded by a dense network of capillaries. Small gas exchange (1-2% of the total) occurs through the skin and gastrointestinal tract.

In the airways (nasal cavity, nasopharynx, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles) the air is cleaned of dust, moistened and heated to body temperature. The supply and removal of air from the lungs is ensured by the action of the respiratory muscles (intercostal muscles), as well as the diaphragm and muscles of the shoulder girdle.

The digestive system supplies the human body with the main amount of nutrients (proteins, fats, carbohydrates, salts and vitamins) it needs for synthesis processes and energy needs.

Undigested substances and metabolic products must be removed from the body, which is ensured by the excretory system.

The main amount of substances unnecessary for the body, formed during the metabolic process and as a result of the breakdown of the body’s own structures, is removed through the gastrointestinal tract in the form of feces and gases.

Another way of excreting undigested substances and decay products of one’s own tissues from the body is excretion (removal) through urine and sweat.

The endocrine system consists of endocrine glands that do not have excretory ducts. They produce chemicals called hormones, which enter directly into the blood and have a regulatory effect on organs distant from the corresponding glands.

Anatomically, the nervous system consists of central and peripheral. The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system includes the cranial and spinal nerves, as well as nerve ganglia and plexuses outside the spinal cord and brain.

Incoming sensory information is processed through specific pathways: for example, pain, visual or auditory nerve fibers. Sensitive pathways go in an ascending direction to the centers of the brain. The result of the activity of the central nervous system is activity that is based on the contraction or relaxation of muscles or the secretion or cessation of secretion of glands.

The autonomic, or autonomic, nervous system regulates the maintenance of a relatively stable state of the body's internal environment: a constant body temperature or blood pressure that meets the body's needs. The autonomic nervous system is divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic.

The sympathetic system stimulates those processes that are aimed at mobilizing the body's forces in extreme situations or under stress. The parasympathetic system contributes to the accumulation or restoration of the body's energy resources.

The central nervous system regulates the activity of all organs, systems and the entire organism in accordance with environmental conditions, changing the functioning of individual organs and systems.

To put all systems into operation, the central nervous system must have information about the state of the external environment. This function (providing information) is performed by various analyzers and receptors of the senses.

Any analyzer consists of a receptor, nerve pathways and a brain end. Some receptors are adapted to perceive changes in the environment (exteroceptors), and some are adapted to perceive changes in the internal environment (interoreceptors). The receptor converts the energy of the stimulus into a nerve impulse. The pathways transmit nerve impulses to the cerebral cortex. There is a two-way connection between the receptors and the brain end, which ensures self-regulation of the analyzer.

The visual analyzer plays an exceptional role in a person’s life and his relationships with the outside world. With its help, we get the lion's share (about 90%) of the information. Through vision, we almost instantly recognize the shape, size, color of an object, determine the direction and distance to it. The visual analyzer includes the eye, the optic nerve and the visual center located in the occipital lobe of the cerebral cortex.

The eye is a complex optical system, where the limiter of the light flux carrying information is the pupil. Depending on the brightness of the light, its size changes. Having entered the eye through the pupil, light rays are refracted on the surface of the eyeball, in the cornea, lens and vitreous body, and converge on the retina, giving it an image of a visible object. The retina lines the back half of the eyeball and consists of light-sensitive receptors - rods and cones.

Cones and rods perform various functions. Cones allow you to clearly distinguish small details and the color of objects, but require good lighting for this, and therefore provide so-called “daytime” vision. “Night” vision is carried out with the help of retinal rods, which are able to respond to low light, but do not allow one to distinguish small details and color.

In addition, the eye gives us the opportunity to judge the spatial arrangement of objects in the external environment. This assessment of distances “by eye” is called an eye meter.

The second most important after the visual analyzer is the auditory one. Only it allows us to receive information out of sight (for example, from behind or in the dark) from various distances almost instantly.

The hearing analyzer responds to acoustic vibrations in the frequency range from 16 to 20,000 Hz. With its help, we hear other people's speech.

The perceiving part of the sound analyzer is the ear, which consists of three sections: external, middle and internal. The well-known outer ear consists of the pinna and the external auditory canal, covered by an elastic eardrum that separates the outer and middle ears. The middle ear cavity communicates with the nasopharynx cavity through the Eustachian tube, through which air passes into the middle ear cavity during swallowing. The inner ear has the most complex structure and is located in the thickness of the temporal bone of the skull. It is there that receptors are located that perceive irritation and cause a nerve impulse, which is transmitted to the corresponding part of the cerebral cortex, where the auditory representation is synthesized.

The next analyzer - smell - also allows you to receive information from long distances, but it is much better mastered by representatives of the animal world than by humans. The olfactory receptors are located in the nose and perceive minute amounts of substances in the air that are perceived as odor.

Another analyzer, taste, allows you to obtain information about the quality of food. We sense taste through receptors located on the tongue and oral mucosa.

Another analyzer is the sense of touch, by which we mean the sensations that arise from the direct impact of an irritant on the surface of the skin.

The tactile analyzer senses touch and pressure on skin receptors. The skin of different parts of the body has different sensitivity, it is highest on the tips (pads) of the fingers. The receptors of the tactile analyzer allow us to confidently distinguish the location of even a short-term touch. However, the sense of touch does not prevent us from sitting or lying for hours, because a characteristic feature of the tactile analyzer is the rapid development of adaptation to the stimulus, that is, the disappearance of the feeling of touch or pressure.

Temperature sensitivity of the skin is provided by two types of receptors - cold and heat.

The spatial distribution of pain receptors is interesting. There are many of them where there are few tactile receptors, and vice versa. Pain receptors cause a reflex of withdrawal from the stimulus, because a painful stimulus is a danger. Under the influence of pain, the body quickly mobilizes to fight danger, the work of all body systems is rebuilt.

The analyzers discussed above are so important and have long been known to man that he called them sense organs: vision, hearing, smell, touch and taste. But besides them, humans have other analyzers and receptors.

The human brain receives information not only from the environment, but also from the body. Sensitive nervous apparatus is present in all internal organs. Reacting to external conditions, they provide signals necessary to regulate the activity of internal organs.

Important analyzers are proprioceptors, which allow you to feel muscle tension and the spatial arrangement of the body and limbs.

The presence of two hands in a person provided him with the possibility of activity. To do this, our ancestor had to stand on two legs from four paws. According to the laws of physics, the vertical position is completely unstable, and therefore is skillfully maintained by the body with the help of the vestibular apparatus. Dysfunction of the vestibular analyzer can cause a feeling of dizziness and nausea (motion sickness).

Despite the differences in the variety of receptors and analyzers, their functioning has much in common, since they all developed in the process of evolution as a protective system.

In real conditions of earthly habitation, a person is exposed to a lot of different, often weak, stimuli. In the course of evolution, man has developed the ability to perceive only those stimuli whose intensity reaches a certain value. Such a minimum adequately felt value is usually called the lower absolute threshold of sensitivity or the threshold of perception. In this case, perception regarding the beginning of the stimulus is always delayed by some time, called the latent period.

High values of the stimulus are rare in nature and, as a rule, are associated with a danger about which the body must be “warned.” Therefore, as the intensity of the stimulus increases, there always comes a moment when the sensation is replaced by a special danger signal - pain, from which the body wants only one thing - to get rid of it, and by getting rid of it, it also rids itself of danger. This maximum adequately felt magnitude of the stimulus is usually called the upper absolute threshold of sensitivity or pain threshold.

The interval from the minimum to the maximum adequately felt value (from the perception threshold to the pain threshold) determines the sensitivity range of the analyzer. Within its sensitivity range, the analyzer may cease to distinguish between two different, but similar in intensity, stimuli. When assessing this ability of the analyzer, we talk about the differential threshold (or discrimination threshold), which is understood as the minimum difference between the intensities of two stimuli, causing a barely noticeable difference in sensations.

Like everything in the living world, threshold values are not strictly stable and should be considered as statistical averages.

In real operating conditions, each human analyzer is simultaneously exposed to several stimuli.

We emphasize that the division of the entire set of analyzers into separate systems is rather arbitrary. These systems clearly differ only in their receptors. In the vast majority of cases, a change in the nature of the body’s vital activity in response to changes in environmental conditions occurs with the participation of several analyzers, and then it is almost impossible to draw a clear line between them. For example, the vestibular apparatus, gravireceptors and proprioceptors of muscles, tactile receptors of the skin, and receptors of the organ of vision take part in the regulation of posture. In addition, in this case, all analyzer systems have the same actuator - the musculoskeletal system. It is even more difficult to identify individual analyzers in the case when the choice of reaction to external disturbance is carried out consciously.

Human body and external environment

The human body was formed during a long evolution and is sufficiently adapted to the environment within the limits of its natural variation. We feel normal and can live in winter and summer, in the cool of dawn and in the heat of midday, we can lie as if dead (with a minimum of energy expenditure), or we can run headlong, spending tens of times more energy.

During the period of evolution, a number of specialized systems, fixed in the anatomical and physiological functioning, have developed in the human body, compensating for unfavorable changes external conditions. Any change in environmental conditions automatically creates a corresponding change in life processes, mobilizing the body's defenses.

Changes in the body that occur under the influence of changes in the external environment are aimed, on the one hand, at adaptation (adaptation) to new environmental conditions, and on the other, at maintaining a stable state (homeostasis or homeostasis) and functioning.

Adaptation and homeostasis are interconnected and complementary processes, which are one of the most important features all living systems. Without exaggeration, we can say that these are the main mechanisms for the safe functioning of the human body, determining its health and even life.

Depending on the nature of the external influence and the individual characteristics of the internal environment of the body, the functional state of the latter can be in one of four “modes”:

1. State of normal adaptation to environmental conditions with sufficient reserves of the body's functional capabilities and maintaining homeostasis with minimal stress on regulatory systems. This functional state is optimal and comfortable for a person, and he can stay in it as long as he likes.

2. State of intense satisfactory adaptation to environmental conditions with the expenditure of reserves of the body's functional capabilities and the maintenance of homeostasis due to the tension of regulatory systems. This functional state is acceptable for a person on a relatively short term, after which the body should return to a state of normal adaptation (state 1). Otherwise, the state of tense, satisfactory adaptation will worsen and move into the next state (3).

3. State of unsatisfactory adaptation to environmental conditions with insufficiency of the basic functional capabilities of the body and maintaining homeostasis through the inclusion of additional compensatory mechanisms. This condition is undesirable and without special measures can easily worsen and progress to the next state (4).

4. State of maladjustment(failure of adaptation mechanisms) with insufficient functional capabilities of the body, including compensatory ones, and disruption of homeostasis. This condition requires urgent special intervention, otherwise it threatens the body with death.

Under normal conditions of a normally changing external environment, an organism that successfully copes with the need to adapt and maintain homeostasis is healthy (state 1). This state alternates with state 2 depending on environmental conditions.

When the body, in order to maintain homeostasis, turns on the mechanisms of compensatory reactions (state 3), we have to talk about the so-called “premorbid state” - the state of pre-disease. There are no clinical symptoms of the disease, as modern medicine understands it, but, unfortunately, it is impossible to say that the person is healthy.

When the body cannot adapt to environmental conditions (state 4), it becomes ill and/or dies.

From the above it follows that ensuring human safety consists in such regulation of the external environment and the functioning of the internal environment of the body, which, under the influence of this external environment, allows the body to remain within the limits of its adaptive capabilities (states 1 and 2).

In addition to the above-described unfavorable conditions - diseases, a person in the course of his life is faced with the possibility of injury.

Trauma is a violation of the anatomical integrity or physiological functions of human tissues or organs caused by a sudden external impact with energy sufficient to cause injury.

Trauma (sharp disturbance, usually long-lasting) of mental processes is called mental trauma, or shock.

The injury that causes death is called fatal injury.

Trauma is a consequence exclusively of external factors, but not of the development of any processes in the body, and in this it differs from most diseases. However, it is very similar to diseases such as acute poisoning. Poisoning is actually both a type of injury and a type of disease.

The death of a person ends his existence and is the most unfavorable phenomenon for us.

Death– irreversible cessation of the body’s vital functions; a stepwise process that includes agony, clinical death, individual death and biological death.

Agony - the final moment of life preceding clinical death. Agony is characterized by a profound dysfunction of the higher parts of the brain with simultaneous excitation of the centers of the medulla oblongata. In some cases, the state of the body during agony is reversible.

Clinical death- a borderline state of the body between life and death, in which there are no visible signs of life, the functions of the central nervous system fade away, but metabolic processes in the tissues are preserved. Clinical death lasts several minutes in a person and through individual death passes into biological death.

Individual death– the dying phase in which brain cells die. At the same time, the organism (like a plant) still lives, but the personality traits and individuality have already been erased irrevocably. A person reanimated at this stage of death ceases to be fully who he was previously and loses his “human” features.

Biological death– complete cessation of all metabolic processes

in the body, irreversible changes in tissues and organs.

Science that studies changes in the functional state of the human body under the influence of his work activity and substantiates methods and means of organizing the labor process aimed at maintaining high performance and preserving the health of workers is called labor physiology.

Tasks of occupational physiology:

1. Study of physiological patterns of work activity.

2. Study of physiological parameters of the body during various types of work.

3. Development of practical measures and recommendations aimed at optimizing the labor process (reducing fatigue, maintaining the health of workers, increasing efficiency, increasing labor productivity)

Concepts of performance, fatigue, overwork.

Performance- this is a person’s potential ability to perform work of a certain volume and quality for a given time and with sufficient efficiency.

Performance phases:

Phase 1 – production phase (characterized by an increase in the activity of the central nervous system, an increase in the level of metabolic processes, increased activity cardiovascular systems, i.e. the level of performance gradually increases.).

Phase 2 – phase of relatively stable performance (characterized by an optimal stable level of functioning of the central nervous system, stable functioning of all organs and systems of the body.)

Phase 3 – phase of decreased performance (associated with the development of fatigue)

Fatigue– this is a state of the nervous system in which, as a result of overexcitation of its individual parts, inhibition of conditioned reflexes (dynamic stereotype) and a decrease in performance occur.

Overwork– this is a pathological condition of the body (disease) that does not go away on its own after rest, but requires special treatment.

1. General concepts about human labor activity

2. General information about the human body and its interaction with the environment

3.Working conditions

4. Adverse effects of labor on humans

Introduction

The goals of teaching the discipline are to develop in students an understanding of the organization and coordination of work on labor protection at an enterprise, subject to compliance with legislative and other regulatory legal acts on labor protection by employees of the enterprise, as well as to obtain knowledge on carrying out preventive work to prevent industrial injuries and advising the employer and employees on labor safety issues.

Objectives of studying the discipline:

The study of the relationship between society and man in their relationship with production activities and the environment;

Mastering the organization of labor protection activities at the enterprise;

Understanding the problems of industrial and environmental safety;

Understanding the mechanism of impact of production on humans and components of the biosphere;

Mastery of methods for determining normative levels of acceptable negative impacts on humans and the natural environment;

Familiarization of legislative and regulatory technical acts regulating life safety;

Acquisition by students of the principles of life safety management at the level of the state, region and enterprise.

Interdisciplinary connections

The discipline “Fundamentals of Occupational Safety” is inextricably linked with such disciplines as “Fundamentals of Personnel Management”, “Management”, “Labor Economics”, “Physiology and Psychology of Labor”, “Sociology of Labor and Social Psychology”, “Organizational Behavior”, “Organizational Culture " and etc.

The discipline “Fundamentals of Occupational Safety” belongs to the cycle of special disciplines (SD.03).

Thematic plan

The forms of final control are tests and exams, which are carried out both orally and in the form of testing.

1. General concepts about human labor activity

Labor, like any human activity, is a complex, multifaceted phenomenon of the material world, including its social structure, and at the same time a phenomenon of the personal (and therefore mental) life of almost everyone.

The basis of everything is “ simple labor process"(it is also called “living labor,” but even more often it is called simply “labor,” which leads to further confusion), carried out by a working person ( subject of labor) by transformation subject of labor by using means of labor V product of labor. The simple process of labor clearly personifies the process of transformation of the external world by man.

The variety of types of different labor is inexhaustible, but we will turn to the most common (including still) types of labor - physical and mental labor.

Physical work – one of the main forms of the simple labor process, which is characterized by the predominance of physical stress over mental stress. In physical labor, a person mainly uses his muscular energy and strength to “activate” the means and tools of labor to transform the object of labor into a product of labor and partially “controls” this “action.”

Physical labor may require significant physical effort (for example, when lifting or moving heavy objects) or high tension, when some movement must be performed at a high rhythm, or endurance, when some action must be performed for a long time.

All human progress is associated with “liberation” from physical labor.

In the beginning, all physical labor was manual labor(in modern phraseology - non-mechanized and non-automated).

At mechanized labor(when performing the same overall work), in general the severity of labor decreases, but for a number of operations the intensity of work increases, requiring greater care and coordination of human movements.

Automated labor displaces a person from the simple labor process, leaving behind him the functions of participation in other simple labor processes associated with development, adjustment, and control.

Brainwork - the second of the main forms of the simple labor process, which is characterized by the predominance of mental (mental) stress over purely physical (muscular). In the process of mental work, a person mainly uses his intellectual capabilities.

Technical progress in automation and informatization of all types of activities inevitably reduces the role of physical labor and increases the role of mental labor. Some problems disappear, others arise. The operator’s responsibility for timely recognition of signal information and making the right decision (for example, a driver, an electric locomotive driver, an aircraft pilot, a nuclear power plant dispatcher, etc.), the speed of changing situations (for example, an airfield dispatcher), the incessant monotony of reproductive labor that requires attention and concentration (supermarket cashier) and much more put previously non-existent problems of facilitating mental work on the agenda of the 21st century.

The nature of work changes significantly when several people begin to work instead of one. Practitioners know well that organizing the work of one person, or two people, or three or more people are completely different tasks, introducing their own problems into the planned implementation of a simple labor process.

Man is a social being, and labor is the source of all wealth, and therefore labor has a dual character. It is not only a simple process of labor to transform the material world, but also social attitude people participating (directly or indirectly) in it.

Social character labor is determined by the form of ownership of the means of production and is associated with the right to appropriate the product of labor. On this basis they distinguish private labor(owner or tenant) and hired labor. The social nature of labor (as a source of livelihood and wealth) is also manifested in the formation of methods of labor motivation (desire, perceived need, coercion).

Note that heavy forms of physical labor (hard labor in quarries, road construction, tunnels, galleys, etc.) were and are used for punishment convicts.

The global and general division of labor and the unbridled growth of the scale of modern commodity production have led to the dominance of wage labor, often called professional labor.

Wage labor is the result of the hired worker’s conscious need to work in order not to die of hunger, and at the same time the employer who hires him, conscious of the need to attract workers to carry out the production process he is implementing in order to ultimately make a profit.

Different kinds specific labor are divided depending on their intended purpose, scope of application and functional role in production activities. For general characteristics specific labor, all possible features in their combination.

Like any other activity, labor activity contains various dangers, including dangers to the life and health of a person engaged in the simple process of labor. To protect against them you need to know and be able to do a lot.

2. General information about the human body and its interaction with the environment

Without knowing “yourself,” you cannot understand how to protect “yourself” from threats from the outside world, and therefore we will allow ourselves to recall some basic data on human anatomy and physiology.

Modern man has gone through a long evolutionary path of adaptation to the environment, and the human body is a single whole, all systems and organs of which develop and function in mutual dependence and conditionality. Although the body functions as a whole, dividing it into certain systems is necessary to understand the functioning of the body in the external environment, especially if these systems are either anatomically quite distinct, such as the circulatory and digestive systems, or are physiologically functional, such as , thermoregulation and immune systems.

The human body is so complex that a number of scientists are studying it. scientific disciplines. We will consider it very simply and only from the standpoint of ensuring human safety in the labor process.

From these positions in the human body, with some degree of convention, we can distinguish what we have conventionally named:

(1) shaping systems,

(2) life support systems and

(3) control systems.

Formation systems (1) include the skeletal and muscular systems, as well as the skin and a number of mucous membranes.

Life support systems (2) include all systems of exchange with the external environment (respiratory, digestive and excretory systems) and distribution of substances in the body between various organs (cardiovascular system).

Control systems (3) include the autonomic and central nervous systems.

All body systems consist of various organs that are functionally interconnected with each other. Organs are built from various tissues. Tissues consist of cells and intercellular substance in which various biochemical processes occur. Each organ has blood vessels, and most have lymphatic vessels. Nerves approach and branch into all organs.

Musculoskeletal system forms the human musculoskeletal system and ensures the autonomy of the body, the ability for it to perform various actions and movement in space. In addition, bones, muscles and skin provide protection to other so-called internal organs from direct exposure to the external environment. In addition to its protective functions, the skin is involved in metabolism and heat regulation.

Heart and blood vessels form a closed system through which blood moves due to contractions of the heart muscle and the walls of blood vessels. Blood vessels are divided into three main types: arteries, capillaries and veins. Arteries carry blood away from the heart. They branch into vessels of ever smaller diameter, through which blood flows to all parts of the body. In the parts of the body furthest from the heart, the blood vessels are so small that they can only be seen under a microscope. It is these microscopic vessels, capillaries, that supply cells with oxygen and nutrients. After their delivery, blood loaded with metabolic end products is sent to the heart through a network of vessels called veins, and from the heart to the lungs, where gas exchange occurs, as a result of which the blood is saturated with oxygen.

Respiratory, digestive and excretory systems serve to consume substances necessary for life from the environment and remove metabolic products (biochemical processes of life).

Sweating through the skin plays an important role in maintaining the water-salt and acid-base balance of the body. On average, a person sweats out 600 ml of water per day. A huge (about 270) amount of chemicals is excreted with sweat.

Anatomically nervous system consists of central and peripheral systems. The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system includes the cranial and spinal nerves, as well as nerve ganglia and plexuses lying outside the spinal cord and brain.

The autonomic, or autonomic, nervous system regulates the activity of involuntary muscles, the heart muscle, and various glands. Its structures are located both in the central nervous system and in the peripheral nervous system.

The activity of the autonomic nervous system is aimed at maintaining a relatively stable state of the body's internal environment: a constant body temperature or blood pressure that meets the body's needs. The autonomic nervous system is divided into

Sympathetic and

Parasympathetic.

The sympathetic and parasympathetic systems act in a coordinated manner and cannot be viewed as antagonistic. They jointly support the functioning of internal organs and tissues at a level corresponding to the intensity of stress and emotional state person. Both systems function continuously, but their activity levels fluctuate depending on the situation.

Endocrine system consists of endocrine glands that do not have excretory ducts. They produce chemicals called hormones, which enter directly into the blood and have a regulatory effect on organs distant from the corresponding glands.

central nervous system regulates the activity of all organs, systems and the entire organism as a whole and is a collection of nerve cells and processes extending from them. In this set of cellular bodies located in the cranium (brain) and spinal canal (spinal cord), information is processed that comes to them via sensory nerves and proceeds from them to the executive organs along motor (to muscles) and autonomic (to internal organs) nerves. All nerves and their branches form the peripheral nervous system.

The central nervous system organizes vital processes in accordance with environmental conditions, changing the functioning of individual organs and systems. At the same time, the functioning of all systems is closely intertwined. For example, in the process of transporting substances by blood circulation, in addition to the cardiovascular system, the urinary system also participates, since the blood flow passes through the kidneys, and the respiratory system, since the blood flow passes through the lungs, and the digestive and hematopoietic systems. The basis of the influence of the digestive system on the cardiovascular system is their close connection through water-electrolyte metabolism. The musculoskeletal system has a very large influence on mechanical movement blood.

To put all systems into operation, the central nervous system (and the person along with it) must have information about the state of the external environment, which is achieved with the help of various analyzers and receptors of the so-called sense organs.

Any analyzer consists of a receptor, nerve pathways and a brain end. Some receptors are adapted to perceive changes in the environment (exteroceptors), and some are adapted to perceive changes in the internal environment (interoreceptors). The receptor converts the energy of the stimulus into a nervous process. The pathways transmit nerve impulses to the cerebral cortex. There is a two-way connection between the receptors and the brain end, which ensures self-regulation of the analyzer.

Plays an exceptional role in a person’s life and his relationships with the outside world. visual analyzer. With its help, we get the lion's share (about 90%) of the information. Through vision, we almost instantly and at considerable distances perceive the shape, size, color of an object, direction and distance at which it is located from us. The visual analyzer includes the eye, the optic nerve and the visual center located in the occipital lobe of the cerebral cortex.

Second in importance after the visual analyzer is auditory. Only it allows us to receive information out of sight, for example, from behind, or in the dark from various distances almost instantly. The differences between the speeds of light and sound are noticeable to us when observing distant thunderstorms, explosions, etc.

Another analyzer - sense of smell also allows you to receive information from long distances, but it is much better used by representatives of the animal world than by humans. The olfactory receptors are located in the nose and perceive minute amounts of substances in the air that are perceived as odor.

Another analyzer - taste allows you to obtain information about the quality of food. We sense taste through receptors located on the tongue and oral mucosa.

If a person were a contemplator of nature, then seeing, hearing, smelling and tasting would probably be enough for him. But a person wants to eat and reproduce, and for this he must act (you must pick up a stick, you must step on a stone, you must cuddle with someone like yourself).

And all this would have been impossible if not for touch. By touch we mean the sensations that arise from the direct impact of an irritant on the surface of the skin. The skin is literally stuffed with receptors of various analyzers.

Tactile analyzer perceives touch and pressure on skin receptors.

Temperature sensitivity of the skin is provided by two types of receptors - cold and heat.

The analyzers discussed above are so important and have long been known to man that he called them sense organs:

sense of smell,

touch and

But besides them, humans have other analyzers and receptors.

The human brain receives information not only from the environment, but also from the body. Sensitive nervous apparatus is present in all internal organs. In the internal organs, under the influence of external conditions, certain sensations arise that generate signals. These signals are a necessary condition for regulating the activity of internal organs.

Important analyzers are proprioceptors, which allow you to feel muscle tension and the spatial arrangement of the body and limbs.

Despite the differences in the variety of receptors and analyzers, their functioning has much in common, since they all developed in the process of evolution to protect against dangers.

In real conditions of earthly habitation, a person is exposed to a lot of different, often weak, stimuli. In the course of evolution, man has developed the ability to perceive only those stimuli whose intensity reaches a certain certain value. Such a minimum adequately felt value is usually called the lower absolute threshold of sensitivity or the threshold of perception. In this case, perception always lags behind the onset of exposure to the stimulus for some time, called hidden (latent) period.

Above the threshold of perception, the intensity of sensations slowly increases with increasing intensity of the stimulus, and their relationship can be approximately expressed by the logarithmic Weber-Fechner law. This connection between stimulus and sensation is not accidental, since it makes it possible to reduce a very wide range of stimuli to a much narrower range of sensations, and those undergoing the greatest transformation are highest values irritant.

High values of the stimulus are rare in nature and, as a rule, are associated with danger, the occurrence of which the body must be “warned”. Therefore, as the intensity of the stimulus increases, there always comes a moment when the sensation is replaced by a special danger signal - pain, from which the body wants only one thing - to get rid of it, and by getting rid of it, it also rids itself of danger. This maximum adequately felt magnitude of the stimulus is usually called upper absolute threshold of sensitivity or pain threshold.

The interval from the minimum to the maximum adequately felt value (from the perception threshold to the pain threshold) determines analyzer sensitivity range.

Within its sensitivity range, the analyzer may cease to distinguish between two different, but similar in intensity, stimuli. To evaluate this ability of the analyzer, we talk about differential threshold(or discrimination threshold), which is the minimum difference between the intensities of two stimuli that causes a barely noticeable difference in sensations.

Like everything in the living world, threshold values are not strictly stable. They depend on many factors, often difficult to take into account. Therefore, all thresholds should be considered as statistical averages.

In real operating conditions, each human analyzer is simultaneously exposed to several stimuli. Therefore, it is necessary to take into account not only the capabilities of the analyzer, but also the conditions in which the person will work. Therefore, when determining optimal operating conditions, it is necessary to take into account the entire system of stimuli acting on all human analyzers.

During evolution, the human body has developed a number of specialized systems, fixed in the anatomical structure and physiological functioning of a person, designed to compensate for unfavorable changes in external conditions. Any change in environmental conditions automatically creates a corresponding change in life processes in the body, aimed at ensuring that this external change does not lead to damage and death of the body.

Changes in the internal environment of the body that occur under the influence of changes in the external environment are simultaneously aimed, on the one hand, at adaptation ( adaptation) to new environmental conditions, and, on the other hand, to maintain a relatively unchanged state ( homeostasis or homeostasis) the internal environment of the body and its functioning.

Adaptation and homeostasis– interconnected and complementary processes, which are one of the most important features of all living systems. Without exaggeration, we can say that these are the main mechanisms for the safe functioning of the human body, determining its health and even life.

Under normal conditions of a normally changing external environment, an organism that successfully copes with the need to adapt and maintain homeostasis is healthy body.

When the body turns on the mechanisms of compensatory reactions to maintain homeostasis, we have to talk about the so-called premorbid state - the state pre-diseases. In this state there are still no clinical symptoms of the disease, as modern medicine understands it, but, unfortunately, it is impossible to say that the person is healthy.

When an organism cannot adapt to environmental conditions, it becomes ill and/or dies.

That., ensuring human security consists in such regulation of the external environment (working conditions) and the functioning of the internal environment of the worker’s body, which, under the influence of this external environment, allows the body to remain within its adaptive capabilities and maintain its health and ability to work.

3.Working conditions

Under working conditions understand the totality of factors in the labor process and the production environment in which human activity is carried out. (Note that in the “Guide to the hygienic assessment of working environment factors and the labor process. Criteria and classification of working conditions” R 2.2.2006-05, the term “working environment” is replaced by the term “working environment”, while the content of the concept – its meaning – remains unchanged.

Under labor process factors(regardless of the environment) understand its main characteristics: hard work And labor intensity.

Difficulty of work– a characteristic of the labor process, reflecting the load primarily on the musculoskeletal system and functional systems of the body (cardiovascular, respiratory, etc.) that ensure its activity.

The severity of labor is determined by the physical dynamic load, the mass of the load being lifted and moved, the total number of stereotypical working movements, the magnitude of the static load, the nature of the working posture, the depth and frequency of body tilt, and movements in space.

Labor intensity– a characteristic of the labor process, reflecting the load primarily on the central nervous system, sensory organs, and emotional sphere of the employee.

TO factors characterizing labor intensity, relate:

Intelligent,

Sensory,

Emotional stress

The degree of monotony of loads,

Operating mode.

Under production/work environment factors in which human activity is carried out, understand a variety of factors in this environment, from

Physical up to

Social and psychological.

All these factors influence the human body in one way or another.

Among their diversity, there are production factors that pose a particular danger (threat) to humans, because they cause significant harm to their health, seriously limiting (even depriving them) of their ability to work.

Factors in the working environment, which under certain conditions can cause an industrial injury to a worker, have come to be called hazardous production factor, and the factors of the working environment, which under certain conditions can cause an occupational disease in a worker, began to be called harmful production factor. The conventions of these names are obvious. It should be noted that a harmful factor easily becomes dangerous under certain conditions.

Since, as practice has shown, the main causes of occupational diseases are high values harmful production factors and the duration of their impact on the worker’s body, as well as individual characteristics and deviations in health status individual employee, including those not detected during medical examinations, and low values do not lead to such diseases, then the assessment of working conditions by the nature of the impact of harmful production factors uses the concept of the so-called threshold exposure to factors of the working environment.

Within the framework of this concept, it is believed that below a certain threshold - the maximum permissible value of a harmful production factor for maintaining health - its harmful effects are practically absent and can be completely (for practical needs) neglected.

A classic example of the implementation of the concept of threshold effects of chemicals on a living organism is the concept MPC– maximum permissible concentration, first proposed in the early 20s of the twentieth century.

The official definition of the maximum permissible concentration of harmful substances in the air of a working area is as follows: “Hygienic standards for working conditions (MPC, MCL) are the levels of harmful factors in the working environment, which during daily (except weekends) work for 8 hours and no more than 40 hours per week, during the entire working period should not cause diseases or deviations in the state of health that are detectable modern methods research in the process of work or in the long term of life of the present and subsequent generations. Compliance with hygiene standards does not exclude health problems in people with hypersensitivity.”

The introduction of MPC, and then MPL (maximum permissible level) makes it possible in practice to distinguish between safe working conditions, where concentrations are below MPC (levels below MPC), and therefore occupational diseases are practically impossible, from unfavorable working conditions, where concentrations (levels) are above MPC (PD) and the occurrence of occupational diseases is much more likely.

Almost all hygienic regulation of harmful production factors and working conditions is based on this principle, and the values of hygienic standards (HS) were obtained and justified for 8-hour work shift.

It is also important in practice that cases studied in laboratories of the action of one production factor, for example, one or another xenobiotics(a harmful substance incompatible with life) are relatively rare. Much more often, a worker is affected by a whole complex of various harmful production factors, the whole set of all factors of the production environment. At the same time, the result of its impact on the human body also changes.

In real conditions of modern production, the human body is increasingly exposed to the simultaneous effects of various xenobiotics.

Comprehensive it is customary to call this impact, when xenobiotics enter the body simultaneously, but in different ways (through the respiratory tract with inhaled air, the stomach with food and water, the skin).

Combined it is customary to call this impact xenobiotics, when xenobiotics simultaneously or sequentially enter the body through the same route. There are several types of combined action (impact):

1. Independent action. The resulting effect is not associated with a combined effect and does not differ from the isolated effect of each component of the mixture, and therefore is due to the predominance of the action of the most toxic component and is equal to it.

2. Additive action. The resulting effect of the mixture is equal to the sum of the effects of each component of the combined effect.

3. Potentiated action (synergy). The resulting effect of the mixture under combined influence is greater than the sum of the effects of the separate action of all components of the mixture.

4. Antagonistic action. The resulting effect of the mixture under combined influence is less than the sum of the effects of the separate action of all components of the mixture.

Combinations of substances with independent action occur quite often, but, like combinations with antagonistic action, they are not essential for practice, since additive and potentiated actions are more dangerous.

An example of an additive effect is the narcotic effect of a mixture of hydrocarbons. A potentiated effect was noted with the combined action of sulfur dioxide and chlorine, alcohol and a number of industrial poisons.

Often there is a combined effect of xenobiotics with other unfavorable factors, for example, such as high and low temperature, high and sometimes low humidity, vibration and noise, various types of radiation, etc. When xenobiotics are combined with other factors, the effect may be more significant, than under the isolated influence of one or another factor.

In practice, a situation often occurs when the effect of a xenobiotic is “intermittent” or “intermittent” in nature. This effect of xenobiotics has a special effect. It is known from physiology that the maximum effect of any influence is observed at the beginning and at the end of the stimulus. The transition from one state to another requires adaptation, and therefore frequent and sharp fluctuations in the level of stimulus lead to more strong impact it on the body.

With simultaneous exposure to xenobiotics and high temperature, the toxic effect may increase.

Increased humidity can also increase the risk of poisoning, especially from irritating gases.

An increase in the toxic effect was recorded at both increased and decreased barometric pressure.

Industrial noise can also increase the toxic effect. This has been proven for carbon monoxide, styrene, alkyl nitrile, cracked gas, petroleum gases, boric acid aerosol.

Industrial vibration, similar to noise, can also enhance the toxic effects of xenobiotics. For example, cobalt dust, silicon dust, dichloroethane, carbon monoxide, and epoxy resins have a more pronounced effect when combined with vibration compared to the effect of pure xenobiotics.

A worker comes into contact with xenobiotics, usually while simultaneously performing physical work. Physical stress, which has a powerful and diverse effect on all organs and systems of the body, cannot but affect the conditions of absorption, distribution, transformation and excretion of xenobiotics, and ultimately - the course of intoxication.

Currently working conditions are classified according to the hygienic criteria established in Guideline R 2.2.2006-05 “Guide to the hygienic assessment of factors in the working environment and the labor process. Criteria and classification of working conditions."

Working conditions are divided into 4 classes:

Optimal,

Acceptable

Harmful and

Dangerous.

Optimal working conditions (1st class)– conditions under which the health of workers is maintained and the prerequisites are created for maintaining a high level of performance. Optimal standards work environment factors set for microclimatic parameters and workload factors. For other factors, working conditions in which there are no harmful factors or do not exceed levels accepted as safe for the population are conditionally accepted as optimal.

Acceptable working conditions (2nd grade) are characterized by such levels of environmental factors and the labor process that do not exceed established hygienic standards for work places, and possible changes in the functional state of the body are restored during regulated rest or at the beginning of the next shift and should not have an adverse effect in the immediate and long-term period on the health of workers and their offspring. Acceptable working conditions are conditionally classified as safe.

Harmful working conditions (3rd grade) are characterized by the presence of harmful factors that exceed hygienic standards and have an adverse effect on the body of workers and (or) their offspring. Harmful working conditions, according to the degree of exceeding hygienic standards and the severity of changes in the body of workers, are divided into 4 degrees of harmfulness:

1st degree 3rd class (3.1) – working conditions are characterized by such deviations in the levels of harmful factors from hygienic standards that cause functional changes that are restored, as a rule, with a longer interruption of contact with harmful factors (than at the beginning of the next shift) and increase risk health damage;

2nd degree 3rd class (3.2) – working conditions in which the levels of harmful factors cause persistent functional changes lead in most cases to an increase in occupational morbidity (which is manifested by an increase in the level of morbidity with temporary loss of ability to work and, first of all, those diseases that reflect the state of the most vulnerable organs and systems for these factors), to the appearance of initial signs or mild (without loss of professional ability) forms occupational diseases occurring after prolonged exposure (often after 15 years or more);

3rd degree 3rd class (3.3) – working conditions characterized by such levels of working environment factors, the impact of which leads to the development, as a rule, of occupational diseases of mild and moderate severity (with loss of professional ability to work) during the period labor activity, growth of chronic (work-related) pathology, 4th degree, 3rd class (3.4) – working conditions under which severe forms of occupational diseases can occur (with loss of general working capacity), there is a significant increase in the number of chronic diseases and high levels morbidity with temporary disability;

Dangerous (extreme) working conditions (4th grade) characterized by the levels of working environment factors, the impact of which during work shift(or its parts) creates a threat to life, a high risk of developing acute occupational injuries, including severe forms.

Work in hazardous working conditions (4th class) is not allowed, with the exception of liquidation accidents and carrying out emergency work to prevent emergency situations. In this case, the work must be carried out using appropriate PPE and in strict compliance with the time schedules regulated for such work.

Safe working conditions defined Labor Code RF (Article 209) as “working conditions under which the impact on workers of harmful and (or) hazardous production factors is excluded or the levels of their impact do not exceed established standards.”

4. Adverse effects of labor on humans

As is known, under certain circumstances, the impact of working conditions on a working person can lead to adverse consequences (events).

Let us recall that for a person such unfavorable events are:

Fatigue,

Disease (disease),

Fatigue– a physiological state of the body that occurs as a result of excessively intense or prolonged activity and is manifested by a temporary decrease in the functional capabilities of the human body. There are physical, mental and emotional fatigue.

Physical fatigue manifested by impaired muscle function: decreased strength, accuracy, consistency and rhythm of movements. Occurs during intense and/or prolonged physical activity.

Mental fatigue manifested by a decrease in the productivity of intellectual work, weakening of attention (difficulty concentrating), slowed thinking, decreased levels of mental activity, and decreased interest in work. Occurs during intense intellectual activity.

Emotional exhaustion manifested by a noticeable decrease in emotional reactions under the influence of super-strong or monotonous stimuli (stress).

Insufficient rest or excessive workload for a long time often leads to chronic fatigue, or overwork. A distinction is made between mental and mental (spiritual) fatigue.

Fatigue and the associated decline in performance (productivity) is the most common unfavorable consequence of the simple process of work. However, if fatigue does not exceed the limits of a person’s adaptive capabilities (it is not overwork), the latter’s body will easily recover after appropriate rest. Various breaks at work, lunch breaks, rest days and, finally, vacations are all traditional, widely used and often mandatory activities to prevent a decrease in human performance. Unfortunately, the modern rhythm of life and work increasingly leads more and more workers to chronic fatigue syndrome. According to many Western European experts, this particular problem may become the most pressing in ensuring safety and hygiene requirements in the workplace.

Another widespread adverse consequence of work is human illness: malaise; bad feeling; rapidly occurring, but passing relatively quickly (“acute” in medical terminology) and lasting for years, sluggish with periodic exacerbations (“chronic” in medical terminology).

The causal relationship of the disease with working conditions is very complex and ambiguous.

The complex of factors in the production environment that shapes working conditions, the severity and intensity of the process, has both a specific (i.e., directly and clearly directed) and non-specific (general unfavorable) impact on workers.

The more common nonspecific effects reduce the overall protective functions of the body, which leads to the development of common diseases. Since these diseases are caused by working conditions, they are often called occupational diseases ( in Western European terminology – work-related diseases). In practice, it is quite difficult (and sometimes impossible) to separate them from ordinary morbidity. The share of the impact of unfavorable working conditions on overall morbidity rates ranges from 20 to 40%, but may be higher.

Less common specific exposures are associated with specific production factors and lead to the development of certain diseases caused by these factors. Since these diseases are caused by unfavorable working conditions in specific workplaces of specific professions, they are called occupational diseases. Sometimes it is also quite difficult to separate them from ordinary morbidity in practice, but it can still be done. A professional medical report – a medical diagnosis and its compliance with the officially accepted “agreement” on what and in what cases is considered an “occupational disease” – is mandatory for occupational diseases!

Acute occupational disease is a disease that occurs suddenly, after a single (for no more than one working day or one work shift) exposure to harmful production factors, resulting in temporary or permanent loss of professional ability to work. As a rule, these are inhalation poisonings.

Chronic occupational disease is a disease that occurs as a result of prolonged exposure to harmful production factors, resulting in temporary or permanent loss of professional ability to work. The vast majority of occupational diseases (about 95%) are chronic.

Practice shows that painful changes in the body can accumulate unnoticed for years and suddenly manifest themselves as a serious occupational disease. Therefore, occupational diseases often lead to professional disability workers. In addition, the mortality rate of people with occupational diseases from ordinary diseases that develop and develop under the influence of harmful production factors is tens of times higher than among the population as a whole.

Most occupational diseases require diagnosis in specialized medical treatment institutions, where workers with suspicious symptoms, possibly caused by an occupational disease, are sent.

Another quite common adverse consequence of exposure to unfavorable working conditions is injury.

By the type of impact on the body (mechanical, electrical and electromagnetic, temperature, radiation or chemical) injuries can be classified as

Mechanical,

Electrical,

Light,

Thermal (cold),

Radiation.

These are falls, blows, bruises, bites, cuts, punctures, wounds, fractures, crushing injuries, burns, frostbite, electric shocks, electric shocks, blinding, heat strokes, etc.

Choking (asphyxia), which occurs due to the lack of oxygen or the entry of foreign objects into the lungs (including due to drowning), are also forms of injury, since they lead to a rapid disruption of the normal functional state of the body. The severity of damage during injury varies and may result in the need for first aid on site, treatment in a medical facility, loss of ability to work, disability or death.

Among all injuries, those injuries in which a person is unable to work for some time are especially distinguished.

The most serious injuries result in professional disability(inability to work in the profession) or general disability(inability to work at all) of the worker and even death. To refer to injuries leading to death, a special term is used - “ fatal injury".

Minor cuts, sprains and other relatively minor injuries are often called microtraumas.

In itself, trauma to the human body is a purely medical phenomenon. However, an injury received in the process of work is already a medical and social phenomenon: if the victim cannot work, then on what means will he (if he is alive) and his dependents live? This means that the victim, in principle, must receive from someone somewhere some means of living that will compensate him for the harm caused by the injury.

From this point of view, of all the injuries received in the process of work, they distinguish work injuries that have socially significant consequences: the death of an employee or the need to transfer him to another job (in Russia - for a period of at least one day); temporary or permanent loss of ability by an employee to work for a certain period of time (in Russia - at least one day).

Labor activity can, first of all, be divided into physical and mental labor.

Physical work- the performance of energy functions by a person in the “man - tool” system requires significant muscle activity; physical work is divided into two types: dynamic and astatic. Dynamic work is associated with the movement of the human body, his arms, legs, fingers in space; static - with the impact of load on the upper limbs, core and leg muscles when holding a load, while doing work, standing or sitting. Dynamic physical work, in which more than 2/3 of a person’s muscles are involved in the process of work, is called general, with the participation of 2/3 to 1/3 of a person’s muscles in the work (muscles of only the body, legs, arms) - regional, with local dynamic Less than 1/3 of the muscles are involved in physical work (typing on a computer).

Physical labor is characterized, first of all, by an increased muscular load on the musculoskeletal system and its functional systems - cardiovascular, neuromuscular, respiratory, etc. Physical labor develops the muscular system, stimulates metabolic processes in the body, but at the same time can have negative consequences, for example, diseases of the musculoskeletal system, especially if it is not organized correctly or is excessively intense for the body.

Mental work is associated with the reception and processing of information and requires attention, memory, activation of thinking processes, and is associated with increased emotional stress. Mental work is characterized by a decrease in motor activity - hypokinesia. Hypokinesia may be a condition for the formation of cardiovascular disorders in humans. Prolonged mental stress has a negative impact on mental activity - attention, memory, and environmental perception functions deteriorate. A person’s well-being and, ultimately, his state of health largely depend on the proper organization of mental work and on the parameters of the environment in which a person’s mental activity is carried out.

In modern types of work, purely physical labor is rare. The modern classification of labor activity identifies forms of labor that require significant muscle activity; mechanized forms of labor; labor in semi-automatic and automatic production; labor on the assembly line, labor associated with remote control, and intellectual (mental) labor.

Human life activity is associated with energy expenditure: the more intense the activity, the greater the energy expenditure. Thus, when performing work that requires significant muscle activity, energy costs amount to 20...25 MJ per day or more.

Mechanized labor requires less energy and muscle stress. However, mechanized labor is characterized by greater speed and monotony of human movements. Monotonous work leads to rapid fatigue and decreased attention.

Work on a conveyor belt is characterized by even greater speed and monotony of movements. A person working on an assembly line performs one or more operations; Since he works in a chain of people performing other operations, the execution time of operations is strictly regulated. This requires a lot of nervous tension and, combined with the high speed of work and its monotony, leads to rapid nervous exhaustion and fatigue.

In semi-automatic and automatic production, energy costs and labor intensity are less than in conveyor production. The work consists of periodically servicing mechanisms or performing simple operations - feeding the material being processed, turning the mechanisms on or off.

The forms of intellectual (mental) labor are diverse: operator, managerial, creative, the work of teachers, doctors, students. The work of an operator is characterized by great responsibility and high neuro-emotional stress. The work of students is characterized by tension in the basic mental functions - memory, attention, presence stressful situations related to tests, exams, tests.

1. Basic concepts and problems of organizing labor processes

Labor process- a set of actions by workers to appropriately change the subject of work.

The main characteristics of the labor process include the usefulness of the results, the time spent by workers, the amount of income of workers, and the degree of their satisfaction with the work performed.

The content of the labor process is determined by the totality of actions and movements of a worker (group of workers) necessary to perform work at all stages: receiving a task, information and material preparation of work; direct labor participation in the process of transforming objects of labor in accordance with the technology used, delivery of completed work 1.

The following general stages of the labor process are distinguished:

Analysis of the situation (problem, plan, work plan, task, etc.);

Understanding the technology of performing work, the possibility of influence of environmental factors, predicting the results of the process;

Preparing the workplace and providing it with everything necessary

for normal operation: material resources, labor, in-

formation, equipment, etc.;

Doing work is a direct labor process;

Registration of work results;

Delivery and implementation (implementation, use) of work;

Encouraging good performance.

Labor processes carried out in industrial enterprises

belong to the sphere of material production and can be classified according to factors such as the nature of labor, the substance (essence) of the subject of labor, the purpose of labor processes, their role or place in the production process, frequency of execution, level of mechanization, etc.

Physical labor processes include labor processes that require the expenditure of physical (muscular) energy, for example, moving loads manually, storing objects and finished products, installing tools, rotating a machine handle, etc.

Mental labor processes are associated, as a rule, with the mental activity of the employee and consist of analyzing the situation, formulating a problem, determining work methods, etc.

Sensory labor operations are processes perceived by the senses: visible, audible, tangible, olfactory, tasted. These include monitoring the control panel, temperature changes, assessing noise and vibration in the workplace, lighting control, etc.

Mixed (integrated) labor processes, by the nature of labor, are a set of physical, mental and sensory processes required to perform specific work (for example, driving a vehicle, processing parts on CNC machines).

Physical labor processes are associated with the production of specific products or the manufacture of specific products, virtual ones - with information services for enterprise employees (obtaining information via the Internet). Documented labor processes are determined by the creation of intangible assets (development of know-how, computer program, new product project, etc.).

Organization of the labor process- an organic connection in space and time, in quantity and quality of objects of labor, means of labor and main labor to obtain a material result of labor. At the same time, production organizers and enterprise specialists must clearly determine: what to produce, how to produce, who will be involved in production, as well as where, when, in what time frame and with what results the labor process should take place.

When organizing any labor process, certain principles must be observed:

1. Optimal content of the labor process. The composition of the labor process must include certain labor techniques in a rational sequence and optimal combination to ensure uniform workload of the worker, a favorable combination of mental and physical stress, and rhythm of the labor process. This is achieved by optimizing the division of labor, designing equipment and accessories taking into account ergonomic requirements, proper regulation, ensuring optimal intensity and rhythm of labor. Pashuto V.M. Decree. Op. - P. 80-81.

2. Parallel operation of equipment and people. When organizing the labor process, it is necessary to provide for the simultaneous work of man and machine, i.e., preparatory and final work, maintenance of workplaces, and part of the auxiliary labor operations must be performed while the equipment is operating.

3. Economy of movement. Based on the rational design of equipment and accessories, the optimal layout of workplaces, it should be ensured that the labor process is completed with as few simple and short movements as possible with a constant arrangement of labor objects and tools.

4. Rhythm and automaticity of movements. Rhythm when performing labor operations presupposes a thoughtful, well-mastered, habitual sequence of techniques and movements based on the approximate equality of energy and labor costs throughout the shift and in each period of time. Automaticity is due to the frequent repetition of the same techniques and movements over a period of time or shift, which allows you to concentrate on their fast, effective and high-quality implementation.

5. Optimal labor intensity. The organization of the labor process provides for the alternation of muscle and nervous loads on the worker, a change in the types of his activities during the shift, the convenience of performing work and minimal impact on the body of the production environment. All this is due to physiological and economic studies of the level of labor intensity and the degree of workload of the worker, ensuring sustainable labor productivity with an optimal amount of nervous and physical stress.

2. Methods for studying labor processes and working time costs

The combination of labor movements, actions, techniques and a set of techniques forms the labor method.

Labor method- a method of performing an operation, providing for the sequence, structure and technique of performing its constituent elements.

To study the labor process in order to organize and standardize it, work methods are analyzed and designed. A method that ensures the production of high-quality products with the least amount of working time and minimal muscle and nervous tension for the worker is considered rational. The expenditure of working time on operations depends not only on the nature of their location in the operation. The techniques included in the operation can be performed sequentially, in parallel, and parallel-sequentially.

When performing techniques sequentially, each of them begins to be performed after the end of the previous one. The duration of the operation (top) is determined as the sum of the duration of all techniques included in the operation:

top = t1 + t2 + t3,

where t1, t2 and t3 are the duration of the first, second and third reception, respectively.

This arrangement is typical for manual and machine-manual operations without division of labor within the operation.

With parallel implementation, all techniques are performed simultaneously. In this case, there is a complete combination of techniques in time (complete overlap), so the duration of the operation is equal to the longest technique: top = t3. This arrangement of techniques is typical for instrumental, automatic and, in some cases, machine-mechanized operations, as well as for operations where labor is divided according to work methods.

With a parallel-sequential arrangement of techniques, some of them are performed in parallel, and some sequentially, or some of the techniques begin slightly earlier than the end of the previous technique.

In this case, there is a partial combination of techniques in time (partial overlap), so the duration of the operation is equal to the sum of the duration of all techniques except for the overlapped time:

top = t1 + t2 + t3 - (a + b),

where a and b are the times of partially overlapping receptions.

This sequence of techniques occurs when there is no synchronization of the labor of workers performing individual operations.

The shortest duration of the operation is achieved with a parallel arrangement of techniques. Therefore, when analyzing and designing work methods, opportunities are sought for maximally combining the implementation of techniques in time. This is achieved, first of all, by the mechanization of labor processes, changes in the organization of the workplace, facilitating the inclusion of the worker’s hands and feet in the work, as well as the division of labor when performing work.

Rationalization of labor methods and techniques consists of analyzing each operation or work to eliminate unnecessary operations, eliminate unnecessary movements, actions and techniques, as well as to design the optimal sequence of operations, taking into account the time combination of the work of various organs of the worker’s body. It includes improving the organization of workplaces, working conditions and training workers in rational techniques and methods of work.

The study of working time costs and equipment use time is carried out directly at each workplace through observations (analytical and research method) in order to:

Identifying the structure of working time costs, eliminating losses

and its unproductive costs through more complete use of the capabilities of equipment, technology, labor organization and production;

Assessment of applied techniques and methods of work;

Definitions optimal option content and execution sequence individual elements operations;

Calculation of norms and standards;

Establishing the reasons for non-fulfillment or significant over-fulfillment of standards.

All methods for studying working time costs can be divided into two groups:

1) methods of direct observation;

2) method of momentary observations.

Direct observation methods include:

Timing;

Photo of the working day;

Self-photograph of the working day;

Photochronometry.

Timing- a method of studying the time spent on performing cyclically repeating manual and machine-manual elements of an operation. It is used to design the rational composition and structure of an operation, establish their normal duration and, on this basis, develop standards used in calculating technically sound time standards. Timing is used to check standards established by calculation, mainly in mass and large-scale production, as well as to monitor the level of compliance with time standards and adjust these standards. In addition, timekeeping is used to study best practices in order to disseminate them.

Timing can be continuous or selective. With continuous, all operating techniques are measured in their technological sequence during operational time; with selective timing, during the execution of an operation, only individual techniques are measured, regardless of their sequence, but in such a way that the duration of all techniques of the operation is ultimately determined.

Timing consists of the following stages:

Preparation for observation;

Observation;

Processing of time observations;

Analysis of results, conclusions, standard setting and design

operating time standards.

Preparation for conducting time-based observation consists of selecting the object of observation, dividing the operation into its component elements, determining fixation points, establishing the number of required measurements, and ensuring appropriate organizational and technical conditions for work in the workplace. By fixation point we mean the moment when the end of the last movement of the previous technique (complex) coincides with the beginning of the first movement of the subsequent technique of the operation. Establishing fixation points is necessary for correct measurement of the duration of receptions.

The required number of measurements is set for each element of the operation; it depends on the required data accuracy. To obtain the most reliable data, more observations need to be made.

employment wages

3. Regulated wages in times of crisis

Relations between an employee and an employer are regulated by an employment contract (Article 57 of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation). The employment contract must necessarily include a condition on remuneration (including the amount of the tariff rate or official salary of the employee, additional payments, allowances and incentive payments). In accordance with Art. 72 of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation, the terms of an employment contract can only be changed by agreement of the parties and in writing. Thus, the employer does not have the right to reduce the employee’s wages according to at will unilaterally.

However, there is an exception to this rule. According to Article 74 of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation, a unilateral change in the terms of an employment contract (including wages) is possible if these conditions cannot be maintained by the employer for reasons related to changes in organizational or technological working conditions (changes in equipment and production technology, structural reorganization of production, other reasons). Let us add that you can change any mandatory and additional terms of the employment contract (Article 57 of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation), except for the labor function. Labor function- work according to the position staffing table, profession, specialty indicating qualifications, the specific type of work assigned to the employee (Article 15 of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation).

Please note: labor legislation does not disclose what is considered a change in organizational or technological working conditions.

However, it can be assumed that technological reasons include changes in methods (their totality) and modes of the process of manufacturing products (providing services, performing work), as well as changes in technological equipment, tooling, automation and mechanization of production, affecting changes in methods (process, modes, materials, etc.) manufacturing products (providing services, performing work). As a rule, such changes lead to a reduction in material and labor costs.

Changes of an organizational nature in a generalized form include: - streamlining of structural connections between divisions, the founding (creation) of new divisions, the consolidation of old ones (for example, through reorganization: the creation of new links in the structure, the liquidation of old entities, the merger of divisions with the transformation of their functional responsibilities, etc.). d.); - improvement of organizational conditions for managing the production process. These are, first of all, the actions of the employer to organize a systematic change in the structure of the enterprise (institution, organization) as a whole, its restructuring, clarifying the connections and interrelationships of the activities of departments and employees, improving internal clarity and discipline in production and labor relations between services and employees.

To this end, when creating new services and structural divisions, ineffective divisions are eliminated and jobs are cut, changes are introduced in the horizontal interaction of services (other employer structures) and in the vertical subordination and interaction of services to establish a different, more rational system of industrial relations, etc.

If you cut employee salaries by 25 percent, you will have to follow a legal procedure. In particular, the employee must be notified by the employer in writing of upcoming changes to the terms of the employment contract determined by the parties, as well as the reasons that necessitated such changes, no later than two months before their introduction, unless otherwise provided by law (Article 73 Labor Code of the Russian Federation).

At the same time, “... the employer is obliged, in particular, to provide evidence... of changes in organizational or technological working conditions, for example, changes in equipment and production technology, improvement of jobs based on their certification, structural reorganization of production, and did not worsen the employee’s position compared to terms of the collective agreement, agreement. In the absence of such evidence... a change in the terms of the employment contract determined by the parties cannot be recognized as legal" (paragraph 21 of the Resolution of the Plenum Supreme Court RF No. 2 dated March 17, 2004).

If the employee does not agree to work under the new conditions, you are obliged to offer him in writing another job you have (both a vacant position or work corresponding to the employee’s qualifications, and a vacant lower position or lower paid job), which the employee can perform taking into account his condition health. At the same time, you are obliged to offer the employee all vacancies available in your local area that meet the specified requirements. The employer is obliged to offer vacancies in other locations, if so provided collective agreement, agreements, employment contracts.

If there is no specified work or the employee refuses the proposed work, the employment contract is terminated in accordance with paragraph 7 of Article 77 of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation.

I would like to draw your attention to the fact that if the employee has not given his written consent to the new terms of remuneration, his wages must be paid to him in the same amount for at least another two months. Otherwise, after the first payment wages not in full, the employee can file a complaint with the federal labor inspectorate or the court with a claim to recover from the employer the unpaid part of the wages, compensation for late payment (Article 236 of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation) and compensation for moral damage.

The most important thing from the point of view of a person’s psychophysiological capabilities that affect safety is the type of work activity, its severity and intensity, as well as the conditions in which work activity is carried out.

Labor activity can, first of all, be divided into physical And brainwork. The main types of work activities are presented in Fig. 2.

Rice. 2 . Types of human labor activity

Physical work characterized primarily by increased muscle load on the musculoskeletal system and its functional systems - cardiovascular, neuromuscular, respiratory, etc. Physical labor develops the muscular system, stimulates metabolic processes in the body, but at the same time can have negative consequences, for example, diseases of the musculoskeletal system, especially if it is not organized correctly or is excessively intense for the body.

Brainwork is associated with the reception and processing of information and requires attention, memory, activation of thinking processes, and is associated with increased emotional stress. Mental work is characterized by a decrease in motor activity - hypokinesia. Hypokinesia may be a condition for the formation of cardiovascular disorders in humans. Prolonged mental stress has a negative impact on mental activity - attention, memory, and environmental perception functions deteriorate. A person’s well-being and, ultimately, his state of health largely depend on the proper organization of mental work and on the parameters of the environment in which human mental activity occurs.

In modern types of work, purely physical labor is rare. The modern classification of labor activity identifies forms of labor that require significant muscle activity; mechanized forms of labor; labor in semi-automatic and automatic production; assembly line labor; work associated with remote control and intellectual (mental) work.

Mechanized labor Requires less energy and muscle activity. However, mechanized labor is characterized by greater speed and monotony of human movements. Monotonous work leads to rapid fatigue and decreased attention.

Labor on the assembly line characterized by even greater speed and monotony of movements. A person working on an assembly line performs one or more operations; since he works in a chain of people performing other operations, the time for their completion is strictly regulated. This requires a lot of nervous tension and, combined with the high speed of work and its monotony, leads to rapid nervous exhaustion and fatigue.

On semi-automatic And automatic production Energy costs and labor intensity are lower than on a conveyor belt. The work consists of periodically servicing mechanisms or performing simple operations - feeding the material being processed, turning the mechanisms on or off.

Forms intellectual(mental)labor diverse - operator, managerial, creative, the work of teachers, doctors, students. For operator work characterized by great responsibility and high neuro-emotional stress. Students' work characterized by tension in basic mental functions - memory, attention, the presence of stressful situations associated with tests, exams, tests.

The most complex form of mental activity is creative work(the work of scientists, designers, writers, composers, artists). Creative work requires significant neuro-emotional stress, which leads to increased blood pressure, changes in the electrocardiogram, increased oxygen consumption, increased body temperature and other changes in the functioning of the body caused by increased neuro-emotional stress.

A person’s energy consumption in the process of life is determined by the intensity of muscular work, the degree of neuro-emotional stress, as well as the conditions of the human environment. Daily energy expenditure for mental workers is 10...12 MJ; for workers in mechanized labor and the service sector - 12.5...13 MJ, for workers in heavy physical labor - 17...25 MJ.

Hygiene specialists classified human working conditions (see Fig. 3) according to the degree of severity and intensity of the labor process and according to indicators of harmfulness and danger of the working environment (R2.2.755–99. Hygienic criteria for assessing and classifying working conditions according to indicators of harmfulness and danger of production factors environment, severity and intensity of the labor process. M.: Federal Center State Sanitary and Epidemiological Supervision of the Ministry of Health of Russia, 1999).

Factors of the labor process that characterize the severity of physical labor are mainly muscular efforts and energy expenditure: physical dynamic load, the mass of the load being lifted and moved, stereotypical working movements, static load, working postures, body tilts, movement in space.

Factors of the labor process that characterize labor intensity are emotional and intellectual load, load on human analyzers (auditory, visual, etc.), monotony of loads, work mode.

Labor, according to the degree of severity of the labor process, is divided into the following classes: light (optimal working conditions in terms of physical activity), moderate (acceptable working conditions) and three degrees heavy (harmful working conditions).

The criteria for assigning labor to a particular class are: the amount of external mechanical work (in kgm) performed per shift; weight of the load lifted and moved manually; the number of stereotypical working movements per shift, the amount of total effort (kgf) applied per shift to hold the load; comfortable working posture; quantity forced bending over a shift and the kilometers a person is forced to walk while doing work. The values of these criteria for women are 40...60% less than for men.

Rice. 3. Classification of working conditions by severity

For example, for men, if the weight of weights lifted and moved (no more than twice an hour) is up to 15 kg, the work is light; up to 30 kg – medium weight, more than 30 kg – heavy. For women, respectively, from 5 to 10 kg.

The assessment of the severity class of physical labor is carried out on the basis of taking into account all criteria, while the class is assessed according to each criterion, and the final assessment of the severity of labor is established according to the most sensitive criterion.

According to the degree of intensity of the labor process, labor is divided into the following classes: optimal–light labor intensity, acceptable–labor intensity of medium degree, intense labor of three degrees.

The criteria for assigning work to a particular class are the degree of intellectual load, depending on the content and nature of the work performed, the degree of its complexity; duration of concentrated attention, number of signals per hour of work, number of objects of simultaneous observation; load on vision, determined mainly by the size of the minimum objects of discrimination, the duration of work behind monitor screens; emotional stress, depending on the degree of responsibility and significance of the mistake, the degree of risk to one’s own life and the safety of other people; monotony of labor, determined by the duration of simple or repetitive operations; work mode, characterized by the length of the working day and work shifts.

The assessment of labor intensity is based on an analysis of work activity, which is carried out taking into account the entire complex of factors (stimuli, irritants) that create the preconditions for the occurrence of unfavorable neuro-emotional states and overstrain.

For example, the work of an air traffic controller requires a large intellectual load associated with the perception of signals followed by a comprehensive assessment of interrelated parameters under time pressure and with increased responsibility for the final result. Work is characterized by a long duration of concentrated observation of the video terminal screen, signal density and the number of simultaneously observed objects; high emotional load due to the very great responsibility and significance of a mistake for life large number of people. According to these indicators, the work of an air traffic controller can be classified as hard work of the third degree.

The work of students in secondary specialized educational institutions requires solving simple problems in known rules and algorithms, perception of information with subsequent correction of one’s actions, performance of tasks, long-term concentrated observation, load on visual analyzers. According to these criteria, the work of students, depending on the organization of the learning process, the duration of training sessions per day, one- or two-shift training, can be classified as light (optimal conditions of the labor process) or moderate (acceptable conditions) in terms of intensity.

Thus, physical labor is classified according to the severity of labor, mental labor - according to intensity.

Labor that requires physical activity, emotional, intellectual stress, responsibility, analyzer tension, etc., is classified both by the severity and intensity of the work. These types of labor include the work of drivers, typesetters in printing houses, computer users who enter large amounts of information into memory, etc. The work of people in these professions is characterized by stereotypical working movements involving the muscles of the fingers, hands, arms or shoulder girdle, constancy of the working posture, voltage of analyzers (primarily vision), duration of concentrated observation, etc. The work of rescuers is characterized by heavy physical exertion, emotional stress due to responsibility for people’s lives, and irregular work at any time of the day. However, a feature of the work of a rescuer is the variability of physical and emotional stress.

Human health largely depends not only on the characteristics of the labor process - severity and tension, but also on environmental factors in which the labor process takes place.

Today, the list of actually operating negative factors, both in the production environment and in the domestic and natural environment, includes more than 100 types.

The parameters of the working environment that affect human health are the following factors:

physical: climatic parameters (temperature, humidity, air mobility), electromagnetic radiation of various wavelengths (ultraviolet, visible, infrared - thermal, laser, microwave, radio frequency, low frequency), static, electric and magnetic fields, ionizing - radiation, noise, vibration, ultrasound, irritant aerosols (dust), illumination (lack of natural light, insufficient illumination);

chemical: harmful substances, including biological ones (antibiotics, vitamins, hormones, enzymes);

biological: pathogenic microorganisms, producing microorganisms, preparations containing living cells and spores of microorganisms, protein preparations.

According to the factors of the working environment, working conditions are divided into four classes (see Fig. 4):

1 class - optimal working conditions, which not only preserves the health of workers, but also creates conditions for high performance. Optimal standards are established only for climatic parameters (temperature, humidity, air mobility);

Rice. 4 . Classification of working conditions by production factors

2nd grade – acceptable working conditions, which are characterized by levels of environmental factors that do not exceed those established by hygienic standards for workplaces, while possible changes in the functional state of the body pass during rest breaks or by the beginning of the next shift and do not have an adverse effect on the health of workers and their offspring;

3rd grade – harmful working conditions, which are characterized by the presence of factors that exceed hygienic standards and have an impact on the body of the worker and (or) his offspring.

Harmful working conditions, according to the degree of excess of standards, are divided into 4 degrees of harmfulness:

– 1st degree is characterized by such deviations from acceptable norms that result in reversible functional changes and the risk of developing the disease;

– 2nd degree is characterized by levels of harmful factors that can cause persistent functional disorders, an increase in morbidity with temporary loss of ability to work, and the appearance of initial signs of occupational diseases;

– 3rd degree is characterized by such levels of harmful factors at which, as a rule, occupational diseases develop in mild forms during the period of work;

– 4th degree – conditions of the working environment under which pronounced forms of occupational diseases can occur, high levels of morbidity with temporary loss of ability to work are noted.

Harmful working conditions include the conditions in which metallurgists and miners work in conditions of increased air pollution, noise, vibration, unsatisfactory microclimate parameters, thermal studies; traffic controllers on high-traffic highways, who spend their entire shift in conditions of high gas pollution and increased noise.

For example, if the maximum permissible concentrations (MPC) of harmful substances in the air of the working area are exceeded by up to 3 times, harmful working conditions of the 1st degree are created; if exceeded by 3 to 6 times – 2 degrees; from 6 to 10 times – 3 degrees; from 10 to 20 times – 4 degrees; when maximum permissible noise levels (MPL) are exceeded up to 10 dB (decibels) – 1st degree of harmful working conditions; from 10 to 25 dB – 2nd degree; from 25 to 40 dB – 3rd degree; from 40 to 50 dB – 4th degree;

Class 4 – hazardous (extreme) working conditions, which are characterized by such levels of harmful production factors, the impact of which during a work shift or even part of it creates a threat to life, a high risk of severe forms of acute occupational diseases. Dangerous (extreme) working conditions include the work of firefighters, mine rescuers, and liquidators of the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant.

Extreme conditions are created, for example, when the maximum permissible concentration for harmful substances is exceeded by more than 20 times, and the maximum permissible limit for noise is more than 50 dB.

Hard and stressful work has an adverse effect on human health. While a person cannot refuse such types of activities, but as technological progress develops, it is necessary to strive to reduce the severity and intensity of labor by mechanizing and automating heavy physical work, transferring the functions of control, management, decision-making and performing stereotypical technological operations and movements to automatic machines and electronic computers.

Human labor activity must be carried out under acceptable working environment conditions. However, when performing some technological processes, it is currently technically impossible or economically extremely difficult to ensure that standards for a number of factors in the production environment are not exceeded. Work in hazardous conditions should be carried out using personal protective equipment and reducing the time of exposure to harmful production factors (time protection).

Work in hazardous conditions is permitted in extreme cases, for example: during emergency situations, localization and liquidation of an accident, carrying out rescue operations, when failure to carry out work threatens with catastrophic consequences, human and large material losses.

Depending on the severity and intensity of work, the degree of harmfulness or danger of working conditions, the amount of remuneration, the duration of leave, the amount of additional payments and a number of other established benefits are determined, designed to compensate for the negative consequences of work for a person.

Thus, if a person received a normal genotype from his parents and was not exposed to negative influences during his life, then gradual aging of the body and natural death occur within the biological time frame determined by evolution. However, such ideal conditions practically do not exist; throughout life a person is exposed to various types of negative influences, which often exceed the protective capabilities of the body and lead to disruption of the flow of natural life processes. As a result, various diseases arise and a person’s life span is shortened. Diseases not only shorten a person’s life, but also reduce the body’s functionality, performance, and vitality.

We are not talking about creating “greenhouse” conditions for humans; moreover, such conditions reduce the adaptive capabilities of the body. For example, statistics show that people working in industries that require an absolutely clean atmosphere and constant microclimatic conditions close to comfortable are much more susceptible to infectious and colds. This particularly applies to people working in the microelectronics industry.

Thus, we're talking about on creating conditions under which negative impacts would not exceed the body’s protective abilities.

When choosing a profession, a person must take into account all the circumstances associated with future work activity, and be able to correctly correlate the state of his health and the negative factors of the profession. This will allow him to maintain his vitality for a longer period and ultimately achieve greater success in life and career.

Excessive, or prohibitive, forms of mental stress cause disturbances in the normal psychological state of a person, which leads to a decrease in the individual, characteristic of a person, level of mental performance. In more pronounced forms of mental stress, the speed of a person’s visual and motor reactions decreases, coordination of movements is impaired, and negative forms of behavior and other negative phenomena may appear. Exorbitant forms of mental stress underlie the erroneous actions of operators in difficult situations.

Depending on the predominance of the excitatory or inhibitory process, two types of extreme mental stress can be distinguished - inhibitory and excitable.

Brake type characterized by stiffness and slowness of movements. The employee is not able to perform professional actions with the same dexterity and speed. The speed of responses decreases. The thought process slows down, memory deteriorates, absent-mindedness and other negative signs appear that are not characteristic of a given person in a calm state.

Excitable type manifests itself in the form of increased activity, verbosity, trembling of hands and voice. Operators perform numerous unnecessary, unnecessary actions. They check the condition of the instruments, straighten their clothes, and rub their hands. When communicating with others, they exhibit irritability, short temper, harshness, rudeness, and touchiness that is not typical for them.

Alcohol consumption reduces a person’s performance, and the risk of an accident increases due to the effect of alcohol on a person’s physiological and mental functions.

In a state of intoxication, a person’s coordination of movements is impaired, the speed of motor and visual reactions decreases, thinking deteriorates - the person commits hasty and thoughtless actions.

Based on this, we can conclude that even drinking a small amount of alcohol significantly increases the likelihood of an accident.

When consuming large quantities of alcohol, a state of severe intoxication occurs, in which the real perception of the outside world is disrupted, the person becomes unable to consciously control his actions and loses his ability to work.

Thus, no matter the degree of intoxication of a person, any, even minor, consumption of alcohol increases exposure to danger.

1. General concepts about human labor activity

2. General information about the human body and its interaction with the environment

3.Working conditions

4. Adverse effects of labor on humans

Introduction

Objectives of studying the discipline:

The study of the relationship between society and man in their relationship with production activities and the environment;

Mastering the organization of labor protection activities at the enterprise;

Understanding the problems of industrial and environmental safety;

Understanding the mechanism of impact of production on humans and components of the biosphere;

Mastery of methods for determining standard levels of permissible negative impacts on humans and the natural environment;

Familiarization of legislative and regulatory technical acts regulating life safety;

Acquisition by students of the principles of life safety management at the level of the state, region and enterprise.

Interdisciplinary connections

The discipline “Fundamentals of Occupational Safety” belongs to the cycle of special disciplines (SD.03).

Thematic plan

The forms of final control are tests and exams, which are carried out both orally and in the form of testing.

1. General concepts about human labor activity

The variety of types of different labor is inexhaustible, but we will turn to the most common (including still) types of labor - physical and mental labor.

All human progress is associated with “liberation” from physical labor.

In the beginning, all physical labor was manual labor(in modern phraseology - non-mechanized and non-automated).

Note that heavy forms of physical labor (hard labor in quarries, road construction, tunnels, galleys, etc.) were and are used for punishment convicts.

The global and general division of labor and the unbridled growth of the scale of modern commodity production have led to the dominance of wage labor, often called professional labor.

Different kinds specific labor are divided depending on their intended purpose, scope of application and functional role in production activities. For the general characteristics of a particular work, all possible distinctive features in their combination are used.

2. General information about the human body and its interaction with the environment

The human body is so complex that a number of scientific disciplines study it. We will consider it very simply and only from the standpoint of ensuring human safety in the labor process.

From these positions in the human body, with some degree of convention, we can distinguish what we have conventionally named:

(1) shaping systems,

(2) life support systems and

(3) control systems.

Formation systems (1) include the skeletal and muscular systems, as well as the skin and a number of mucous membranes.

Control systems (3) include the autonomic and central nervous systems.

Musculoskeletal system forms the human musculoskeletal system and ensures the autonomy of the body, the ability to perform various actions and move in space. In addition, bones, muscles and skin provide protection to other so-called internal organs from direct exposure to the external environment. In addition to its protective functions, the skin is involved in metabolism and heat regulation.

Respiratory, digestive and excretory systems serve to consume substances necessary for life from the environment and remove metabolic products (biochemical processes of life).

Sympathetic and

Parasympathetic.

The sympathetic and parasympathetic systems act in a coordinated manner and cannot be viewed as antagonistic. They jointly support the functioning of internal organs and tissues at a level corresponding to the intensity of stress and the emotional state of a person. Both systems function continuously, but their activity levels fluctuate depending on the situation.

Another analyzer - taste allows you to obtain information about the quality of food. We sense taste through receptors located on the tongue and oral mucosa.

Tactile analyzer perceives touch and pressure on skin receptors.

Temperature sensitivity of the skin is provided by two types of receptors - cold and heat.

The analyzers discussed above are so important and have long been known to man that he called them sense organs:

sense of smell,

touch and

But besides them, humans have other analyzers and receptors.

Important analyzers are proprioceptors, which allow you to feel muscle tension and the spatial arrangement of the body and limbs.

Despite the differences in the variety of receptors and analyzers, their functioning has much in common, since they all developed in the process of evolution to protect against dangers.

In real conditions of earthly habitation, a person is exposed to a lot of different, often weak, stimuli. In the course of evolution, man has developed the ability to perceive only those stimuli whose intensity reaches a certain certain value. Such a minimum adequately felt value is usually called the lower absolute threshold of sensitivity or the threshold of perception. In this case, perception always lags behind the onset of exposure to the stimulus for some time, called hidden (latent) period.

Above the threshold of perception, the intensity of sensations slowly increases with increasing intensity of the stimulus, and their relationship can be approximately expressed by the logarithmic Weber-Fechner law. This connection between stimulus and sensation is not accidental, since it makes it possible to reduce a very wide range of stimuli to a much narrower range of sensations, with the largest values of the stimulus undergoing the greatest transformation.

The interval from the minimum to the maximum adequately felt value (from the perception threshold to the pain threshold) determines analyzer sensitivity range.

In the course of evolution, a number of specialized systems have developed in the human body, embedded in the anatomical structure and physiological functioning of a person, designed to compensate for unfavorable changes in external conditions. Any change in environmental conditions automatically creates a corresponding change in life processes in the body, aimed at ensuring that this external change does not lead to damage and death of the body.

Under normal conditions of a normally changing external environment, an organism that successfully copes with the need to adapt and maintain homeostasis is healthy body.

When an organism cannot adapt to environmental conditions, it becomes ill and/or dies.

3.Working conditions

Under labor process factors(regardless of the environment) understand its main characteristics: hard work And labor intensity.

Labor intensity– a characteristic of the labor process, reflecting the load primarily on the central nervous system, sensory organs, and emotional sphere of the employee.

TO factors characterizing labor intensity, relate:

Intelligent,

Sensory,

Emotional stress

The degree of monotony of loads,

Operating mode.

Under production/work environment factors in which human activity is carried out, understand a variety of factors in this environment, from

Physical up to

Social and psychological.

All these factors influence the human body in one way or another.

Since, as practice has shown, the main causes of occupational diseases are high values of harmful production factors and the duration of their impact on the worker’s body, as well as individual characteristics and deviations in the health status of an individual worker, including those not identified during medical examinations, and low values do not lead to to such diseases, then the assessment of working conditions based on the nature of the impact of harmful production factors uses the concept of the so-called threshold impact of factors in the working environment.

The official definition of the maximum permissible concentration of harmful substances in the air of a working area is as follows: “Hygienic standards for working conditions (MPC, MCL) are the levels of harmful factors in the working environment, which during daily (except weekends) work for 8 hours and no more than 40 hours per week, during the entire working period, they should not cause diseases or deviations in the state of health that can be detected by modern research methods during the work process or in the long-term life of the present and subsequent generations. Compliance with hygiene standards does not exclude health problems in people with hypersensitivity.”

In real conditions of modern production, the human body is increasingly exposed to the simultaneous effects of various xenobiotics.

2. Additive action. The resulting effect of the mixture is equal to the sum of the effects of each component of the combined effect.

3. Potentiated action (synergy). The resulting effect of the mixture under combined influence is greater than the sum of the effects of the separate action of all components of the mixture.

4. Antagonistic action. The resulting effect of the mixture under combined influence is less than the sum of the effects of the separate action of all components of the mixture.

In practice, a situation often occurs when the effect of a xenobiotic is “intermittent” or “intermittent” in nature. This effect of xenobiotics has a special effect. It is known from physiology that the maximum effect of any influence is observed at the beginning and at the end of the stimulus. The transition from one state to another requires adaptation, and therefore frequent and sharp fluctuations in the level of the stimulus lead to a stronger effect on the body.

With simultaneous exposure to xenobiotics and high temperature, the toxic effect may increase.

Increased humidity can also increase the risk of poisoning, especially from irritating gases.

An increase in the toxic effect was recorded at both increased and decreased barometric pressure.

Industrial noise can also increase the toxic effect. This has been proven for carbon monoxide, styrene, alkyl nitrile, cracked gas, petroleum gases, boric acid aerosol.

Working conditions are divided into 4 classes:

Optimal,

Acceptable

Harmful and

Dangerous.

3rd degree 3rd class (3.3) – working conditions characterized by such levels of working environment factors, the impact of which leads to the development, as a rule, of occupational diseases of mild and moderate severity (with loss of professional ability to work) during the period labor activity, growth of chronic (work-related) pathology, 4th degree, 3rd class (3.4) – working conditions under which severe forms of occupational diseases can occur (with loss of general ability to work), there is a significant increase in the number of chronic diseases and high levels of morbidity with temporary loss of ability to work;

Safe working conditions are defined by the Labor Code of the Russian Federation (Article 209) as “working conditions under which exposure to harmful and (or) hazardous production factors on workers is excluded or their exposure levels do not exceed established standards.”

4. Adverse effects of labor on humans

As is known, under certain circumstances, the impact of working conditions on a working person can lead to adverse consequences (events).

Let us recall that for a person such unfavorable events are:

Fatigue,

Disease (disease),

Physical fatigue manifested by impaired muscle function: decreased strength, accuracy, consistency and rhythm of movements. Occurs during intense and/or prolonged physical activity.

Emotional exhaustion manifested by a noticeable decrease in emotional reactions under the influence of super-strong or monotonous stimuli (stress).

Insufficient rest or excessive workload for a long time often leads to chronic fatigue, or overwork. A distinction is made between mental and mental (spiritual) fatigue.

The causal relationship of the disease with working conditions is very complex and ambiguous.

Most occupational diseases require diagnosis in specialized medical treatment institutions, where workers with suspicious symptoms, possibly caused by an occupational disease, are sent.

Another quite common adverse consequence of exposure to unfavorable working conditions is injury.

By the type of impact on the body (mechanical, electrical and electromagnetic, temperature, radiation or chemical) injuries can be classified as

Mechanical,

Electrical,

Light,

Thermal (cold),

Radiation.

These are falls, blows, bruises, bites, cuts, punctures, wounds, fractures, crushing injuries, burns, frostbite, electric shocks, electric shocks, blinding, heat strokes, etc.

Among all injuries, those injuries in which a person is unable to work for some time are especially distinguished.

Minor cuts, sprains and other relatively minor injuries are often called microtraumas.

Diagnostics and diseases. Medicines from A to Z

What is a person's work activity? Human labor activity: concept, components and features