The case of the poisoning of Sergei Skripal and his daughter has resulted in a large-scale conflict - half of Europe is expelling Russian diplomats, Russia is expelling foreign ones in response. British experts say that a nerve agent called "newbie". It belongs to the class of organophosphorus - this is evidenced, among other things, by the fact that in the leaflets distributed by the British authorities, it is proposed to use atropine as an antidote to the poison, and symptoms of damage to organophosphorus poisons are given as signs of poisoning. The formula of the substance from which the Skripals suffered has not been published, while “newcomers” refer to about a dozen different compounds, the composition of which was in the book of the chemist Vil Mirzayanov. Editorial N+1 tried to find out what we know about organophosphates and “newbies”, and also asked experts to talk about their properties and synthesis possibilities.

Nervous chemistry

To understand the principles of operation of organophosphates, let’s perform short excursion to biochemistry nervous system. To transmit nervous excitation through “contact” between two neurons (or the endings of a neuron and a receptor cell), neurotransmitter substances are needed. One of these mediators is acetylcholine, which is formed in nerve cells and accumulates at the ends of their processes in vesicles with a diameter of about 50 nanometers.

Under the influence of nervous stimulation, acetylcholine molecules move into the synaptic cleft - a space 20–50 nanometers wide between the end of the nerve fiber and the innervated cell. On the other side of the gap there are cholinergic receptors that can interact with acetylcholine. The effect of the mediator on the cholinergic receptor leads to a temporary change in the permeability of the membrane for sodium ions, which penetrate into the cell and trigger the execution of the “order”.

Structure of acetylcholinesterase

Acetylcholine molecules that have completed their task must be immediately turned off, otherwise the cholinergic receptors will be “stuck” in one state. This is done by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, which hydrolyzes acetylcholine. The catalytic activity of cholinesterase is higher than that of almost all other enzymes. It is capable of breaking down more than 20 thousand acetylcholine molecules in about a second. Such a powerful catalytic effect is provided by certain areas in the enzyme molecule - active centers.

Scheme of operation of the active center of acetylcholinesterase

Hay Dvir et al. / Chem Biol Interact

To turn off one molecule of acetylcholine, the joint work of two elements of the active center is required - the esterase, where the instrument is the hydroxyl group, and the negatively charged anionic center. The anionic part attracts the part of the acetylcholine molecule with a nitrogen atom, which has a positive charge, and “holds” it, while the esterase part “cuts off” its ether tail by interacting with the hydroxyl group. Acetylated cholinesterase appears, but this complex is very fragile and is quickly destroyed as a result of spontaneous hydrolysis. As a result, molecules of choline and acetic acid are formed, which serve as raw materials for the production of acetylcholine, and cholinesterase from this moment returns to its original state and is ready to repeat the cycle.

Blocking the center

Organophosphate poisons “turn off” acetylcholinesterase, thus blocking the transmission of nerve impulses. Basically they are esters of phosphoric acid, and it is phosphorus that forms a strong chemical bond with oxygen in the esterase center and makes the normal functioning of acetylcholinesterase impossible. Disruption of the nervous system causes a whole series of symptoms - from constriction of the pupils, convulsions, lacrimation and nervous agitation to cardiac arrhythmias, fainting, coma, paralysis of the respiratory muscles. Every year, up to 3 million cases of organophosphorus poisoning are recorded worldwide, and about 250 thousand people die. In 80 percent of poisoning cases, they occur due to careless handling of organophosphorus pesticides.

The first organophosphorus substance capable of blocking acetylcholinesterase, tetraethyl pyrophosphate, was synthesized in 1854 by Philippe Clermont. This substance was used as an insecticide. And today the main role organophosphates - insect control, and it became especially popular in this capacity after most developed countries Organochlorine pesticides were banned, including the infamous DDT. Currently, about 25 thousand brands of insecticides based on organophosphorus compounds are registered in the United States alone. The well-known dichlorvos and karbofos are also from this series. Attempts have been made to use organophosphates as drugs to treat symptoms of dementia and Parkinson's disease, but none of these drugs are currently in use.

The organophosphate boom began in the 1930s. A group led by Gerhard Schrader, working at the I. G. Farbenindustrie concern, was tasked in 1934 with developing a new pesticide. In pursuit of this task, Schrader and his colleagues synthesized hundreds of compounds over the ensuing decades, including the pesticide thiophos, as well as several organophosphates that proved too toxic for pesticides, including tabun (Schroder himself suffered severe poisoning while experimenting with it).

J. Sussman, I. Silman, Acetylcholinesterase: structure and use as a model for specific cation-protein interactions. Curr. Opin. Struct. Biol. 1992 2:721-729.

H. Dvir, I. Silman et al, "Acetylcholinesterase: From 3D structure to function" Chemico-Biological Interactions, vol 187, no. 1-3, pp. 10-22. DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2010.01.042.

Vil S. Mirzayanov, State Secrets: An Insider's Chronicle of the Russian Chemical Weapons Program, Outskirts Press, Incorporated, 2009.

G.I. Oxengendler, Poisons and Antidotes. - L.: Science, 1982.

https://www.site/2018-03-13/chto_izvestno_o_yade_novichok_kotorym_otravili_eks_polkovnika_gru_sergeya_skripalya

The most powerful and unparalleled chemical weapon

What is known about the Novichok poison, which was used to poison ex-GRU Colonel Sergei Skripal

@BBCBristol

On Monday, British Prime Minister Theresa May said that Russia was most likely behind the poisoning of ex-GRU colonel, former British intelligence agent Sergei Skripal and his daughter. According to London, a nerve agent of the Novichok class developed in Russia was used in the assassination attempt. About what the poison is, which caused a new scandal in Russian-British relations, see the material on the site.

What is Novichok and why is it dangerous?

Novichok series nerve agents were developed in the USSR in the 1970s and 1980s. At the State Research Institute of Organic Chemistry and Technology (GNIIOKhT) they were called the strongest and unparalleled chemical weapons in the world. According to data from open sources, in 1991, development curators from the Ministry of Chemical Industry even received the Lenin Prize for “Novichki.”

Details of the developments were revealed to the general public in the 1990s by GNIIOKhT employees Vladimir Uglev and Vil Mirzayanov, who emigrated to the USA. Also, as stated in Wikipedia, some details were expressed by the chemist Lev Fedorov.

Scientists reported that Novichok was developed as part of the secret project "Foliant" and is a binary chemical weapon. The specificity of substances of this class is that they are brought into a “combat state” immediately before use. Before this, Novichok precursors (relatively harmless reagents) are kept separately from each other.

It is important to note that one of the key production facilities of GNIIOKhT was located in Nukus (Uzbekistan). After the collapse of the USSR, Uzbekistan worked closely with the US government to neutralize the sites where Novichoks were tested, that is, the Americans had access to chemical weapons of this class.

In terms of its composition, Novichok can be a liquid, aerosol or gas. Poisoning with this poison leads to paralysis of all muscles and severe damage to the nervous system. Death occurs from respiratory or cardiac arrest. If death does not occur immediately, the person faces a permanent disability. Signs of poisoning may take several weeks to appear.

This happened to GNIIOKhT employee Andrei Zheleznyakov, who suffered acute poisoning with Novichok-5. In May 1987, after working in a Moscow laboratory, Zheleznyakov lost the ability to walk and ended up in a secret clinic in Leningrad. His health condition was constantly deteriorating. Zheleznyakov complained of chronic weakness in his arms, then he was diagnosed with cirrhosis of the liver, which developed against the background of toxic hepatitis. Among other symptoms, periods of severe depression, epilepsy, and lack of concentration were noted. The scientist became disabled and died in July 1992.

Revelations of a scientist and the criminal use of Novichok

Also in 1992, on the eve of Russia signing the Chemical Weapons Convention, Vil Mirzayanov published an article “Poisoned Politics” in the weekly Moscow News. The scientist was arrested and tried to prosecute him for disclosing state secrets. It was then that the authorities actually recognized the presence of Novichok class substances.

From the Facebook page

The public then insisted that the real state secret revealed by Mirzayanov was that the military was lying about the development of chemical weapons. Therefore, the scientist’s actions, from a moral point of view, were justified.

Mirzayanov was released from the pre-trial detention center, after which he left for the United States. He now lives in Princeton, New Jersey. On March 9, the scientist turned 83 years old. After May's statement yesterday, he wrote to Facebook: “Theresa May said that Novichok was used to assassinate Skripal. Its chemical formula was published only in my book State Secrets. An insider"s Chronicle of the Russian Chemical Weapon"s Program" (State secret. Chronicle of the insider program of Russian chemical weapons. - Znak). Washington put a lot of effort into destroying it. Didn't achieve my goal."

Earlier, Mirzayanov said that Russia used money received from the West and used it to develop chemical weapons. During his research, he was horrified to learn how deadly the nerve agents produced were. At the same time, a huge number of compounds were made that were registered in the open literature as new organophosphate insecticides. So the secret chemical program was disguised as legitimate pesticide research.

At the same time, before Skripal, the only documented case of criminal use of a toxic substance similar in effect to Novichok became known in 1995. According to the Kommersant newspaper, the killer then poisoned banker Ivan Kivilidi and his secretary. To do this, the telephone receiver in his office was treated with poison. The victims had all their chronic illnesses worsen (Mr. Kivilidi fell into a coma due to kidney failure), and the deceased secretary did not even touch the phone, but only wiped the dust in the office.

The investigation established that the dangerous substance was purchased from an employee of the GNIIOKhT branch in Shikhany, Saratov region. He was subsequently convicted of abuse of power, as he illegally synthesized potentially dangerous reagents. The killer, who himself received severe poisoning, and the person who ordered the crime, the banker’s business partner Vladimir Khutsishvili, went to the colony.

Poisoning of Skripal, positions of Great Britain and Russia

Former GRU colonel, 66-year-old Sergei Skripal and his 33-year-old daughter Yulia were poisoned on March 4. They were found unconscious on a bench near shopping center in Salisbury. Both are now in critical condition in hospital.

In 2004, Skripal was arrested by the FSB and later sentenced to 13 years in prison for treason. In 2010, he was transferred to the United States as part of an exchange of identified spies. That same year, the ex-GRU colonel settled in Great Britain.

On March 12, 2018, British Prime Minister Theresa May said that Russia was “very likely involved in what happened with Sergei Skripal,” since Novichok was developed in the USSR. According to May, Russian authorities“consider defectors to be a legitimate target,” which is another indirect evidence of Moscow’s involvement in the assassination attempt.

It is possible that military development could have been stolen from Russian laboratories. But it is more likely, according to May, that it was Russia that was involved in the poisoning of its defector.

British Foreign Secretary Boris Johnson demanded that the Russian Ambassador in London, Alexander Yakovenko, confirm one of the versions of Skripal’s poisoning by the evening of Tuesday, March 13. The United States supported Britain in its claim that Skripal was deliberately poisoned by Russia.

If London does not wait for a “plausible explanation,” the British will view the attempt on Skripal’s life as “illegal use by Russia military force against Great Britain" and will take "more serious measures against Russia." May did not say what would happen if the British authorities considered the response unsatisfactory, specifying only that London was ready to “go much further” than after the murder of Alexander Litvinenko.

Western media reported that as part of anti-Russian measures, Great Britain may expel Russian diplomats, including the Russian Ambassador. In addition, London may freeze the assets of Russian oligarchs and officials associated with the Kremlin and recommend disconnecting Russian banks from the international interbank electronic payment system SWIFT.

It is assumed that the British authorities may begin to push for NATO to strengthen the military presence of the alliance in the Baltics and more actively support Ukraine’s entry into the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. In addition, the media suggest that the British leadership may ignore the World Cup, which will take place in Russia.

Russian Foreign Ministry official Maria Zakharova, commenting on May’s statement, called what was happening in the British Parliament a “circus show,” noting that London had embarked on another information and political campaign based on provocation. Zakharova called on the British authorities to reveal the results of the investigation into the cases of Litvinenko, Boris Berezovsky, Alexander Perepelichny and many others who died mysteriously in the UK.

Let us note that on September 27, 2017, the Russian authorities announced that they had completely destroyed all their chemical weapons.

Former GNIIOKhT employee Vil Mirzayanov, who directly worked on Soviet project"Foliant", in an interview with The Telegraph, confirmed that Russia is the only country capable of producing and using such a potent nerve agent
Vil Mirzayanov / Facebook

The Federal State Unitary Enterprise "State Scientific Research Institute of Organic Chemistry and Technology" (GNIIOKhT) refused to comment on reports that this institution, back in Soviet times, developed the nerve gas "Novichok", which was used to poison ex-GRU employee Sergei Skripal in the UK and his daughter Julia. “Our enterprise operates under a secrecy regime. We do not comment on media information,” Interfax was told at the reception of the general director of GNIIOKhT.

The day before, British Prime Minister Theresa May, speaking in the British Parliament, said: “Mr. Skripal and his daughter were poisoned with a military-grade nerve agent developed in Russia. It is known as Novichok.”

Immediately after Prime Minister Theresa May’s accusations against Russia, one of the main developers of this toxic substance, GNIIOKhT employee Vil Mirzayanov, who directly worked on the Soviet project “Foliant,” confirmed in an interview with The Telegraph that Russia is the only country capable of producing and using such a potent nerve agent. Mirzayanov worked for 26 years at GosNIIOKhT (State Scientific Research Institute of Organic Chemistry and Technology), the main military center of the Soviet Union for the production of chemical weapons. He headed a counterintelligence unit that monitored the surrounding area to ensure that Novichok or other nerve agents were not leaked so they could be detected and analyzed by foreign spies.

Subsequently, Mirzayanov emigrated to the United States, where in the early 1990s he wrote a book about the details of the development of the Novichok substance as part of the secret project "Foliant".

The day before in his Facebook Mirzayanov, who turned 83 on March 9, wrote that the chemical formula of Novichok was published in his book “State Secret. Chronicle of the Insider Program of Russian Chemical Weapons.” He noted that Washington at one time made a lot of efforts to prevent the development of these weapons from taking place, but failed.

“It is at least 10 times stronger than any known nerve agent. Moreover, the consequences of its exposure are practically untreatable,” InoPressa quotes an interview with Mirzayanov, who now lives in New Jersey.

The scientist added that the poison used in the Salisbury attack was most likely brought from Russia in a “disassembled” state - there were several components that were harmless in themselves. They were then mixed in a canister that could be easily hidden and used to spray a lethal dose for “intentional demonstration” to Moscow’s enemies around the world.

Novichok is a binary chemical weapon; the use and development of such a substance is officially prohibited by international agreements, but in reality it is almost impossible to track its production. The fact is that the components of Novichok (precursors) are relatively harmless reagents until they are combined, notes Kommersant. However, after combining into a “combat state”, which can be done immediately before use, this nerve agent becomes the most powerful and unparalleled chemical weapon in the world.

This class of substances belongs to the category of third-generation nerve agents and was developed in the late 1980s during the implementation of the "Foliant" project, which resulted in the creation of three unique chemical nerve agents - "Substance 33", " A-232", "A-234". The curators of the development of this substance received the Lenin Prize for “Novices”.

"Novices" are distinguished by their high poisoning ability and the rapid rate of disintegration of their components. chemical elements, the possibility of use in ultra-low doses and in close contacts.

According to the mechanism of action, Novichoks are irreversible inhibitors of the enzyme acetycholinesterase. The neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which is normally destroyed by this enzyme, begins to accumulate in synapses, causing overexcitation of the nervous system, which is quickly replaced by its depression. Little is known about the symptoms of Novichok poisoning; it is believed that the clinical picture of poisoning is the same as when affected by conventional nerve agents (sarin, soman, VX).

Now, according to Mirzayanov, former Russian double agent Skripal and his daughter, poisoned by Novichok, will either die or become disabled. And many more people who have come into contact with this substance in one way or another may feel unwell.

Mirzayanov, who informed the world about the existence of Novichok nerve agents in 1992, said that so little is still known about these chemical weapons that they are not prohibited by the Chemical Weapons Convention. And Russia has never declared the existence of Novichok.

Let us recall that on September 27, 2017, the Russian authorities announced that they had completely destroyed all their chemical weapons.

“Novichok” is a family of organophosphorus toxic substances that have a nerve-paralytic effect.

Production of the toxic substance Novichok, Wikipedia

According to Vila Mirzayanov, Novichok-5 was a further development of the A-232. Among other things, Novichok-5 is a binary toxic substance. The precursors for its production are common organophosphorus compounds, which can be produced in chemical plants for the production of chemical fertilizers or pesticides.

The development was carried out at the State Research Institute of Organic Chemistry and Technology (GosNIIOKhT) in Moscow and at the branch in Shikhany.

The main production and test site of Novichok-5 were located in the city of Nukus in Uzbekistan. In the 2000s, under US control and funding, they were closed and the remaining stockpiles of chemical weapons were destroyed.

According to a statement by Federation Council member Igor Morozov, the production of toxic substances in Russia was stopped back in the 1990s, and by September 2017, all their stocks were destroyed in accordance with international agreements under the control of international OPCW observers.

In 2018, Mirzayanov said that prototypes of this substance could be obtained in many countries thanks to his publications.

"Novichok" action

Nerve agents poison the nervous system and destroy vital body functions. In their pure state, all nerve agents are colorless and odorless liquids.

They enter the respiratory system in gaseous or aerosol form: in the form of very small solid particles or droplets, which, when released into the air, behave like a gas. Nerve agents in a liquid state penetrate the body through the skin or mucous membrane. A person can also become poisoned by consuming liquid or solid food contaminated with a nerve agent.

When a nerve agent is inhaled, poisoning occurs very quickly, with death occurring within one to ten minutes. When the nerve agent enters the body through the skin, poisoning occurs more slowly. Lethal dose VX on exposed skin corresponds to one to two drops (5-15 mg).

In the case of a low dose of a nerve agent in gaseous or aerosol form, typical symptoms are a severe runny nose, abnormal contraction of the pupil of the eye, impaired visual accommodation, and a feeling of pressure in the chest. With more severe poisoning, these symptoms become more pronounced. Other symptoms are nausea and vomiting, spasms, convulsions and spontaneous bowel movements and urination, convulsions and coma. This is followed by respiratory arrest and death.

What injection caused Skripal to survive: data on the antidote for Novichok was revealed

Immediately after the poisoning, ex-spy Sergei Skripal and his daughter were given an injection, which kept them alive. This opinion was expressed by one of the creators combat substance“Novichok” Vladimir Uglev.

“Perhaps it is a family of atropine, which dilates the pupils. “Nerve damage, first of all, constricts the pupils, and atropine dilates,” he suggested.

At the same time, Uglev claims that there is no absolutely effective antidote.

The history of the creation of Novichok

“Novichok” is the code name for a group of nerve gases that were developed back in the USSR in the 80s.

Gas appeared as a result of the development of new types of chemical weapons, which started in 1973. “Novichok” (or rather, “Novichki”) was created on the basis of three other substances, codenamed “Substance 33”, “A-232”, “A-234”. As part of the program to develop a new type of weapon, the task was set: to make new substances that would be many times more toxic than Russian and foreign analogues of V-gases (nerve agents). This is exactly what Novichok is, on the creation of which more than 200 people worked - mostly chemists and engineers.

The composition of "Novichok"

There are highly toxic elements that are part of the poisonous gases Soman and Sarin. The lethality of Novichok also depends on their concentration. You could even say that this is a new product. The connection between phosphorus and nitrogen is what sets this development apart from others. I can’t say what exactly this connection gives. We need to conduct experiments. Additionally, the book appears to contain the original formula. Since the path of its creation is written - evolution from early developments (A-208 - Ed.) to the latest (A-262 - Ed.).

I.2. NOMENCLATURE OF CHEMICAL WEAPONS

Chemical weapons are usually divided into three generations. Their military differences boil down mainly to changes in combat effectiveness. This means not only an increase in the toxicity and other combat characteristics of the chemical agents themselves. The means of use have also evolved - chemical munitions and various devices.

All generations of chemical weapons are united by one feature - the impossibility of their combat use without harm to the civilian population.

In the pre-war years, chemical weapons were assigned to Soviet army a serious role, along with tanks, aircraft and artillery. During the Second World War, the parties did not dare to resort to chemical weapons, and during the course of hostilities they were relegated to the background.

In the post-war years, the chemical weapons of the Soviet Union received powerful additional development.

OM that formed the basis first generation chemical weapons were developed in Germany, the USA and some other countries in connection with the fighting of the First World War and after it 6,9.

PERSISTENT OV

The Russian army has two SOWs in service - mustard gas and lewisite.

Mustard gas (beta,beta-dichlorodiethyl sulfide). Persistent agent with skin-blistering and general toxic effects. Technical mustard gas is a brown oily liquid with the smell of garlic or mustard. Melts at 14.5 o. To lower the freezing point it is mixed with lewisite. The steam concentration C max 20 is 0.625 mg/l. Liquid mustard gas quickly seeps through fabrics, cardboard, and thin rubber. Quickly absorbs into leather, brick, concrete, untreated wood, old oil coatings. Hydrolyzes very poorly.

It affects the body in the form of vapor, aerosol or droplets. It has a latent period of action (death from a lethal dose can occur within 24 hours). Mild eye damage occurs at a concentration of 0.001 mg/l after 30 minutes; at higher concentrations, vision may be lost. Inhalation of steam and aerosol leads to inflammation of the upper respiratory tract, dry cough, and bronchitis. With moderate lesions, death occurs within a month. Severe lesions end in death after 3-4 days. The first signs of skin damage are itching, burning, redness. At higher doses - swelling, small blisters. Subsequently, the blisters merge and burst to form ulcers. The lethal dose when exposed through the skin is 70-80 mg/kg body weight. Capable of accumulation. Enzyme poison. Has a mutagenic effect. There are no antidotes.

Lewisite (beta-chlorovinyldichloroarsine). Organoarsenic persistent agent with skin-blistering and general toxic (disturbance of intracellular carbohydrate metabolism) action. Technical lewisite is a liquid with a characteristic odor reminiscent of geranium. Freezes from -10 to -15 o. Easily hydrolyzed by water to form toxic beta-chlorovinyl arsine oxide.

Does not have a hidden period of action. A concentration of 0.12 mg/l causes death when exposed through the respiratory system. The eyes are very sensitive to lewisite. A concentration in the air of 0.01 mg/l causes redness of the eyes and swelling of the eyelids within 15 minutes. The vapors also affect the skin. Droplet-liquid lewisite causes immediate skin damage (redness, swelling, skin blisters). Fatal cutaneous resorptive toxodosis LD 50 is 20 mg/kg. Fatal toxemia when admitted through gastrointestinal tract LD 50 is 5-10 mg/kg. There are antidotes - 2,3-dimercaptopropanol (BAL) and sodium salt of 2,3-dimercaptopropanesulfonic acid (unithiol).

As part of the combat classification, they include three main groups, including two designed to destroy enemy personnel:

• persistent agents (SOM) of blister and general toxic action: mustard gases - sulfuric acid (substance HD) and nitrogenous (HN), lewisite (L) unstable General toxic and asphyxiating agents: hydrocyanic acid (AC), phosgene (CG), diphosgene (DP),
• irritating agents (irritants - lachrymators and sternites): adamsite (DM, fenarsazine chloride), diphenylchlorarsine (DA, CLARK I), diphenylcyanarsine (DC, CLARK II), chloroacetophenone (CN), chloropicrin (PS), CS gas (dinitrile o-chlorobenzylidenemalonic acids), etc.

SOV and NOV have been considered chemical attack weapons by the Soviet Union since 1918. Produced since 1924 99. Work on their use for military purposes was carried out until the turn of the 50-60s, when the practical transition to ammunition with organophosphorus agents (OPO) began. Even in 1951-1953, when preparations were underway for the use of phosphorus chemical agents, another chemical ammunition was tested and put into service with the army - a 122-mm howitzer fragmentation projectile loaded with SOV and phosgene.

In addition to irritants, first-generation agents also include psychotropic drugs (incapacitants), which, like irritants, are aimed not at destroying enemy personnel, but at temporarily incapacitating them 9 . These include lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), obtained in Switzerland in 1938, benzyl 3-quinuclidine ester (substance BZ), synthesized in the USA in 1955, etc.

Incapacitant LSD

Characterizing second generation chemical weapons As a rule, phosphorus nerve agents are considered - tabun (GA), sarin (GB), soman (GD), V-gases 6,8,9. Soman and V-gases are persistent chemical agents, sarin is usually (in summer time) to unstable.

FOVs have become an element of army combat planning since the 50s, and since the 60s. in binary form 7,8. The phosphorus chemical agents of the Soviet Union included, were in service, were produced on an industrial scale and are currently available in army warehouses: sarin, soman, and also Soviet V-gas 11,17,99, in the USA - sarin and gas VX 7.9. At one time, the Soviet Army was also armed with stocks of herds captured in Germany in 1945 11 .

ORGANOPHOSPHORUS NERVE PHOSPHORUS AGENTS ACTIONS

They cause specific disorders of the nervous system with the appearance of convulsions that turn into paralysis. They chemically bind and inactivate cholinesterase, an enzyme that regulates the transmission of nerve impulses.

Tabun (cyanophosphoric acid ethyl ester dimethylamide).

Colorless liquid with a pleasant fruity odor. Hardens at -48 o. .Lethal concentration 0.3 mg/l with exposure 1 min.

Skin contact with 50-70 mg/kg of drop-liquid tabun leads to fatal poisoning. Slowly hydrolyzes with water. Hydrolysis is accelerated in an alkaline environment. Hydrolysis products are toxic.

Zarin Soman

Sarin (methylphosphonic acid isopropyl ether fluoride)

acids). Colorless, transparent, odorless liquid. Miscible with water and organic solvents in any ratio. Hardens at -56 o. It has high volatility (maximum vapor concentration C max 20 is 11.3 mg/l). It hydrolyzes rather slowly with water. Easily sorbed by porous materials, absorbed into painted surfaces and rubber.

One of the main weapons of the Russian and US armies. Destroys living force by contaminating the ground layer of air. Poisons through any method of entry into the body: inhalation of steam, absorption of liquid or vaporous substances through intact or damaged skin and mucous membranes of the eyes, ingestion of contaminated water and food, contact with surfaces. The lethal concentration is about 0.2 mg/l after one minute of exposure. In droplet-liquid form it causes general poisoning through the skin.

Soman (methylphosphonic acid pinacolyl ether fluoride)

acid). Colorless liquid with the smell of camphor. Hardens at

80 o. Hydrolyzes very slowly with water. Absorption into porous materials is higher than that of sarin. Stores well in metal containers. The maximum steam concentration Cmax 20 is 3 mg/l. It is in service with the Russian army. The defeat is achieved by contaminating the atmosphere with a fine aerosol or steam. The lethal concentration is about 0.02 mg/l with an exposure of 1 minute. Safe - below 5.10 -7 mg/l. When exposed to the skin in a droplet-liquid or vapor state, it causes general poisoning (toxodosis LD 50 1.4 mg/kg). The cumulative properties are more pronounced than those of sarin.

Phosphorus agents were obtained in Germany (tabun - 1936, sarin - 1939, soman - 1944). In the Soviet Union, targeted development of FOV was intensively carried out starting in 1943 102,156. A substance similar to tabun was created in the Soviet Union much before the war. It can be found, for example, in the domestic monograph pre-war years 3. However, the herd itself was synthesized by K.A. Petrov in March 1945 after receiving information about German work.

Sarin in the Soviet Union was synthesized during the war years, independently of German work, twice (A.E. Arbuzov: synthesis - late 1943, toxicological tests - April 1944; M.I. Kabachnik: synthesis of the substance "prays" - September 1944). Under the code “prays”, sarin was put into service with the Soviet Army by order of the War Ministry N 00192 in 1952, which has not been canceled to this day (subsequently, only a recoding took place: to designate sarin in documents, instead of the word “prays”, they began to use “ordoval- 1") 109 .

From the fabrications of General A. Kuntsevich (1995):
“The USSR and the USA learned about sarin only in 1945. The group of German scientists who synthesized this agent was taken by the Americans to the USA after the war” 157 .

In 1945, for the synthesis of sarin and other organophosphorus agents, M. Kabachnik was awarded the Stalin Prize, 1st degree 109 (Table 1).

A group of combat agents, called V-gases according to the international classification, was created in the USA, Sweden and other countries in the 50s. In the Soviet Union, work on the synthesis and establishment of toxicological and other characteristics of the group of V-gases was carried out in 1957-1959. At the same time, a decision was made to equip missile warheads with them.

During these same years, incapacitants 9 appeared.

In 1955-1960 The Soviet Army was armed with an agent capable of overcoming the gas mask charge - trifluoronitrosomethane 112. They were equipped with a 250 kg caliber gas bomb.

Work on the use of hydrogen phosphide (PH 3) as an agent was carried out for many years and was stopped only in 1959.

The path to preparing for a full-scale offensive chemical war could have been abandoned more than once.

This could have been done in the spring of 1945, when acquaintance with captured German factories producing OV 11.57 took place and the technological unpreparedness of the USSR to solve such problems became clear.

Substance VX in the USA and Soviet V-gas have a common gross formula and slightly different structure.

V-gas - USSR VX- USA

Basic weapons of the armies of Russia and the USA.

Oily, high-boiling liquids that do not distill at atmospheric pressure. They have low vapor pressure. Not required special conditions storage, except for sealing containers. Well soluble in water. Very resistant to water (complete hydrolysis in a neutral environment at room temperature may last for years). Infection of water bodies persists for many months. In an alkaline environment, hydrolysis is significantly accelerated, in an acidic environment it is insignificant. Statement 9 It is false that the hydrolysis products of V-gases are non-toxic. One of the hydrolysis products is highly toxic and stable in environment(yield approximately 15%).

They penetrate into organisms through the skin, mucous membranes of the eyes, nose and upper respiratory tract, as well as through clothing. Act on acetylcholinesterase. The hidden period of action is from several minutes to 4-6 hours. They have cumulative properties. Lethal defeat of the enemy by V-gases is achieved by insignificant concentrations of vapors and mists at low densities of infection. Skin penetration is enhanced by the use of dimethyl sulfoxide and similar solvents.

Soviet V-gas. Technical product - liquid from light yellow to dark brown. Freezes (glasses) at -76 o. Refractive index - 1.4745. Properties at 20 o:

• vapor pressure: 2.13. 10 -4 mmHg viscosity: (9-11) sp,
• density: 0.995-1.020 g/s m3

The threshold dose for humans when exposed to unprotected skin is 0.003 mg/kg. When inhaling vapors, a concentration of 0.000014 mg/min/l causes initial signs of intoxication (miosis, chest effect).

In terms of acute toxicity, Soviet V-gas exceeds soman when administered intravenously by 2-3 times, when exposed to inhalation - by 7-10 times, and when administered through skin-resorptive application - by approximately 250 times.

This could have been done in the 50s, when it became clear that the first generation SOWs did not correspond to the nature of the future war and that the strategic necessity of FOV 96 was lost after mastery Soviet Union nuclear missile weapons as a result of three successful August tests ( atomic bomb- August 29, 1949, hydrogen bomb - August 12, 1953 and ballistic missile R-7 - August 21, 1957) 110.

From propaganda everyday life (1987):
“The United States has huge reserves of chemical weapons. The Americans used chemical agents on a large scale in a dirty war against the Vietnamese people. There crops and jungles were destroyed, and most importantly, people were poisoned and left crippled” 67 .

The creation of a chemical attack potential using second-generation phosphorus agents has not been stopped. On the contrary, in March 1967, the MHP and the army (Minister L. Kostandov and Chief of the General Staff M. Zakharov) initiated a sharp expansion of work to prepare for chemical warfare. By the decision of the CPSU Central Committee and the USSR Council of Ministers of September 2, 1968, this strategic mistake was legitimized, and at the end of the 60s. in Soviet Union preparations began for total chemical warfare 106 .

From the revelations of General V. Pikalov (1987):
“Chemical weapons are a means of armed warfare for operational-tactical purposes. But if its development is not stopped, it may well become strategic level weapons. Particularly large losses from the use of chemical weapons may occur in Europe, where the density of population and troops is very high." 70 .

The appearance of third-generation chemical weapons in the Soviet Union is a consequence not only of the Cold War, but also of the anti-nationality of the Soviet Military Chemical Committee, its desire to not lose its “place in life” at any cost. This weapon embodies the double achievements of special chemistry - not only new types of OM 95, but also more developed by this time effective ways their combat use(8.158 cluster ammunition, use the latest achievements chemistry and technology of aerosols 8,9,12,59, a binary design that allows you not to have the agent itself until its combat use 8,90, etc.).

Development of new phosphorus agents, which formed the basis third generation chemical weapons , dates back to 1973-1976. 106,155,159, testing of ammunition with these agents was completed in 1991-1992. 95. One of them (A-232, Novichok-5 102) turned out to be convenient for combat use in binary form (the Soviet V-gas 99.159 was also prepared for use in binary form). The new agent surpasses VX in combat characteristics and is practically incurable 160.

The merits of the creators of chemical weapons of the first, second and third generations, including work on creating chemical munitions and increasing their effectiveness, were noted with signs of attention from the state. The leadership of VHC 11.102 especially did not forget themselves (Table 1).

Table 1

Development and Organization Awards industrial production chemical weapons

		Stalin Prize 2nd degree (S.L. Varshavsky, I.H. Shenfinkel)
Hydrocyanic acid		Stalin Prize 3rd degree (S.S. Bobkov, I.K. Zamaraev, V.G. Zaitsev, M.V. Zlotnik, S.M. Korsakov-Bogatkov)
Sarin type FOV		Stalin Prize 1st degree (M.I. Kabachnik)
New FOV		Stalin Prize (I.P. Komkov, K.A. Petrov)
Sarin and soman		Lenin Prize (V.D. Belyaev, A.B. Bruker, S.L. Varshavsky, S.N. Kosolapov, B.P. Kuchkov, B.Ya. Libman, V.V. Pozdnev, S.N. Potapov , L.Z. Soborovsky, N.N. Yukhtin)
Chemical munitions		State Prize (Z.S. Ainbinder, M.K. Baranaev, Z.I. Brodsky, I.M. Gabov, P.S. Demidenko, F.V. Kozlov, V.E. Kolesnikov, G.A. Taldykin , V.D. Tretyakov, V.N. Fetisov, B.I. Fomichev, L.A. Khanin)
		Lenin Prize (S.V. Golubkov, V.M. Zimin, I.V. Martynov, I.M. Milgotin, A.P. Tomilov, V.N. Topnikov)
		Lenin Prize (K.A. Guskov, E.M. Zhuravsky, M.I. Kabachnik, E.V. Privezentsev, V.M. Romanov, V.F. Rostunov, A.V. Fokin).
Solving "special problems"		State Prize (A.M. Gribov, A.E. Gusakov, I.B. Evstafiev, A.S. Ivanov, G.P. Kucherenko, N.I. Menzhun, V.A. Romanchuk, N.M. Skribunov , N.S. Khazakh, L.S. Shevnitsyn, N.N. Yarovenko)
Program "Foliant"		State Prize (N.P. Artamonov, G.F. Grigorenko, V.I. Dobin, K.A. Zakharov, A.F. Ivlev, N.N. Kovalev, V.S. Mochulsky, V.K. Pikalov , O.I. Stuzhuk, V.M. Ushakov, V.P. Tselykovsky, A.G. Shkuro)
Solving "special problems"		State Prize (B.A. Bogdanov, N.I. Varnaev, A.A. Zlatorunsky, A.M. Ivanov, V.P. Lenge, V.V. Mishin, Yu.I. Musiychuk, G.A. Patrushev , V.K. Pelishchuk, V.V. Pozdnev, G.D. Rozin)
Binary weapon		Lenin Prize (A.V. Gaev, A.V. Kisletsov, A.D. Kuntsevich, V.A. Petrunin)
Binary weapon		State Prize (R.K. Balchenko, V.V. Bocharov, I.B. Evstafiev, N.N. Kovalev, G.S. Leonov, V.A. Putilov, V.I. Khanenko, A.A. Shapetko )

Summing up the hardest path to this strategically the right remedy conducting war as a chemical weapon, it should be emphasized that even today, overcoming the inertia of thinking and abandoning military planning in terms of chemical warfare is not easy for the military and chemical authorities. In any case, it is only very recently that there has been recognition of the danger of chemical weapons and their uselessness for achieving fundamental military goals 161 .

From the belated insights of the heads of the Shikhany Central Military Plant.

General N. Antonov:
“In the last years of my military service, I was the head of my institute, several years after its relocation from Moscow to the village of Shikhany, Saratov region. After leaving military service I worked for a number of years in the Ministry of Health. My responsibilities included identifying trends in the development of chemical weapons. I collected and summarized publications related to chemical weapons and compared the assessments they contained with my own. It was impossible not to pay attention to the fact that optimistic forecasts for the development of chemical weapons do not come true, and the multimillion-dollar expenditures on the search for new chemical agents do not yield results. There was no increase in the destructive power of chemical weapons" 12 .

General A. Kuntsevich:
“The image of chemical weapons has always been associated with an ominous secret. We've all been infected with the idea of ​​having power in our hands. The authority of the state was associated only with force. And only the fear that this force could strike you yourself made politicians, military men and scientists think." 61 .