About the Mongol invasion in brief

Mongolo-tatarskoe nashestvie

In the 13th century, the Mongols were the most feared force known world. They captured mighty China, enslaved Persia, and then moved towards Europe, and the first to stand in their way were the principalities, into which by that time the Kievan Rus. The Russian principalities received a brief reprieve from the Mongol-Tatar invasion when, after the victory on the Kalka River, the Mongol army moved further to the west and was killed in battles with the Volga Bulgars.

This happened in 1223, but already 15 years later the army of Batu Khan came to Kievan Rus. The Mongols easily captured Ryazan, Vladimir, Chernigov and Kyiv. The city of Kozelsk held out the longest, managing to survive for seven weeks. Other cities, for example, Moscow and Uglich, paid off, allowing the Mongols to install their proteges instead of the current rulers. Thus, almost all of Kievan Rus came under the rule of the Mongols, but they did not want to settle in these places, making the Russians their tributaries. However, all the local princes, both Russian and those appointed by the Mongols, after the death of Genghis Khan, set out to regain their freedom.

Even in such conditions, friction began between the Russian principalities - a long war between Moscow and Tver ended with the brutal execution of the Tver prince and the ruin of the Tver lands - Moscow did everything so that Tver would forever forget that it was once a separate principality.
The Prince of Moscow, Ivan Kalita achieved a position in which he himself collected tribute from all Russian principalities and sent it to the Golden Horde. At the same time, most of the wealth collected by the Russian principalities settled in Moscow. Thus, through bribery and small wars with weak principalities, Moscow achieved a dominant position. In addition, a split also occurred in the Horde, and some of the Mongols decided to serve the Moscow Tsar.

When the conflict in the Horde reached its climax, and the struggle began between Khan Mamai and Khan Tokhtamysh, the latter achieved an alliance with Moscow. The protracted war, with little support from the Moscow Tsar, Dmitry Donskoy, ended in the victory of Tokhtamysh. However, Moscow then became so emboldened that it stopped paying tribute, and the Mongol Khan, forgetting about the former alliance, ravaged and burned Moscow. The consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion can be briefly described. If Moscow was rebuilt and continued to gather Russian principalities that could not resist it, the Horde, after 100 years, finally broke into pieces, and in 1480 Ivan III finally threw off the Mongol-Tatar yoke. In subsequent years, Moscow troops carried out military expansion in all possible directions, thus fulfilling the legacy of the Horde.

The Mongol-Tatar yoke is the period of the capture of Rus' by the Mongol-Tatars in the 13th-15th centuries. The Mongol-Tatar yoke lasted for 243 years.

The truth about the Mongol-Tatar yoke

The Russian princes at that time were in a state of hostility, so they could not give a worthy rebuff to the invaders. Despite the fact that the Cumans came to the rescue, the Tatar-Mongol army quickly seized the advantage.

The first direct clash between the troops took place on the Kalka River, on May 31, 1223, and was lost quite quickly. Even then it became clear that our army would not be able to defeat the Tatar-Mongols, but the enemy’s onslaught was held back for quite some time.

In the winter of 1237, a targeted invasion of the main Tatar-Mongol troops into the territory of Rus' began. This time the enemy army was commanded by the grandson of Genghis Khan, Batu. The army of nomads managed to move quite quickly into the interior of the country, plundering the principalities in turn and killing everyone who tried to resist as they went along.

Main dates of the capture of Rus' by the Tatar-Mongols

• 1223 The Tatar-Mongols approached the border of Rus';
• May 31, 1223. First battle;
• Winter 1237. The beginning of a targeted invasion of Rus';
• 1237 Ryazan and Kolomna were captured. The Ryazan principality fell;
• March 4, 1238. Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich was killed. The city of Vladimir is captured;
• Autumn 1239. Chernigov captured. The Principality of Chernigov fell;
• 1240 Kyiv is captured. The Principality of Kiev fell;
• 1241 The Galician-Volyn principality fell;
• 1480 Overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke.

Reasons for the fall of Rus' under the onslaught of the Mongol-Tatars

• lack of a unified organization in the ranks of Russian soldiers;
• numerical superiority of the enemy;
• weakness of the command of the Russian army;
• poorly organized mutual assistance on the part of disparate princes;
• underestimation of enemy forces and numbers.

Features of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Rus'

The establishment of the Mongol-Tatar yoke with new laws and orders began in Rus'.

Actual center political life became Vladimir, it was from there that the Tatar-Mongol khan exercised his control.

The essence of management Tatar-Mongol yoke was that Khan handed over the label to reign at his own discretion and completely controlled all territories of the country. This increased the enmity between the princes.

Feudal fragmentation of territories was encouraged in every possible way, as this reduced the likelihood of a centralized rebellion.

Tribute was regularly collected from the population, the “Horde exit.” The collection of money was carried out by special officials - Baskaks, who showed extreme cruelty and did not shy away from kidnappings and murders.

Consequences of the Mongol-Tatar conquest

The consequences of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Rus' were terrible.

• Many cities and villages were destroyed, people were killed;
• Agriculture, handicrafts and art fell into decline;
• Feudal fragmentation increased significantly;
• The population has decreased significantly;
• Rus' began to noticeably lag behind Europe in development.

The end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke

Complete liberation from the Mongol-Tatar yoke occurred only in 1480, when Grand Duke Ivan III refused to pay money to the horde and declared the independence of Rus'.

Causes:

In the 12th century, nomadic Mongol tribes occupied a significant territory in the center of Asia. In 1206, a congress of the Mongolian nobility - kurultai - proclaimed Timuchin the great Kagan and assigned him the name Genghis Khan. In 1223, the advanced troops of the Mongols, led by the commanders Jabei and Subidei, attacked the Cumans. Seeing no other way out, they decided to resort to the help of Russian princes. Having united, both of them set out towards the Mongols. The squads crossed the Dnieper and moved east. Pretending to retreat, the Mongols lured the combined army to the banks of the Kalka River.

On May 31, 1223, the decisive battle took place. The coalition troops acted separately. The princes' disputes with each other did not stop. Some of them did not take part in the battle at all. The result is complete destruction. However, then the Mongols did not go to Rus', because did not have sufficient strength. In 1227, Genghis Khan died. He bequeathed to his fellow tribesmen to conquer the whole world. In 1235, the kurultai decided to begin a new campaign in Europe. It was headed by the grandson of Genghis Khan - Batu.

Stages:

In 1236, after the destruction of Volga Bulgaria, the Mongols moved towards the Don, against the Polovtsians, defeating the latter in December 1237. Then something stood in their way Ryazan Principality. After a six-day assault, Ryazan fell. The city was destroyed. Batu's troops moved north to Vladimir, destroying Kolomna and Moscow along the way. In February 1238, Batu's troops began the siege of Vladimir. Grand Duke tried in vain to gather a militia to decisively repel the Mongols. After a four-day siege, Vladimir was stormed and set on fire. The city's residents and the princely family, who were hiding in the Assumption Cathedral, were burned alive.

The Mongols are divided: Some of them approached the Sit River, and the second besieged Torzhok. On March 4, 1238, the Russians suffered a brutal defeat in the City, the prince died. The Mongols moved towards Novgorod, however, before reaching a hundred miles, they turned around. Ruining the cities on the way back, they met unexpectedly stubborn resistance from the city of Kozelsk, whose residents repelled Mongol attacks for seven weeks. Still, taking it by storm, the khan called Kozelsk an “evil city” and razed it to the ground.

Batu's invasion of Southern Rus' dates back to the spring of 1239. Pereslavl fell in March. In October - Chernigov. In September 1240, Batu's main forces besieged Kyiv, which at that time belonged to Daniil Romanovich Galitsky. The Kievans managed to hold back the hordes of Mongols for three whole months, and only at the cost of huge losses were they able to capture the city. By the spring of 1241, Batu’s troops were on the threshold of Europe. However, drained of blood, they were soon forced to return to the Lower Volga. The Mongols no longer decided on a new campaign. So Europe was able to breathe a sigh of relief.

Consequences:

The Russian land lay in ruins. The cities were burned and plundered, the inhabitants were captured and taken to the Horde. Many cities were never rebuilt after the invasion. In 1243, Batu organized the Mongol Empire in the west Golden Horde. The captured Russian lands were not included in its composition. The dependence of these lands on the Horde was expressed in the fact that the obligation to pay annual tribute hung over them. In addition, it was the Golden Horde Khan who now approved the Russian princes to rule with his labels and charters. Thus, Horde rule was established over Russia for almost two and a half centuries.

“Modern time” in Europe as a special phase of the world-historical process.

This time is sometimes called the “time of great breakthrough”:

It was during this period that the foundations of the capitalist mode of production were laid;

The level of productive forces has increased significantly;

The forms of production organization have changed;

Thanks to the introduction of technical innovations, labor productivity has increased and the pace of economic development has accelerated.

This period became a turning point in Europe's relations with other civilizations: Great geographical discoveries expanded the boundaries of the Western world and broadened the horizons of Europeans.

There have been a number of significant changes in the government structure of European countries. Absolute monarchies are almost completely disappearing. They are replaced constitutional monarchies or republics.

The development of trade relations deepened the process of formation of national markets, pan-European and global.

Europe became the birthplace of the first early bourgeois revolutions, in which a system of civil rights and freedoms was born, and the fundamental concept of freedom of conscience was developed.

The industrial revolution was accompanied by social revolutions - the century of the formation of industrial society was a century of upheavals, changes in the world map, the disappearance of entire empires and the emergence of new states. All spheres of human society have undergone changes, a new civilization has arrived - the traditional one has been replaced by an industrial civilization.

The rise of Moscow and the unification of Russian lands around Moscow

Trying to justify the rise of Moscow and its transformation into a national center, many historians cite a convenient geographical location and favorable advantages as the most compelling argument. social conditions- well-developed agriculture, many land and river routes that passed through Moscow and made it the center of trade relations. At the beginning of the Tatar-Mongol raids on Rus', Moscow was on the periphery of the state and suffered less from robberies and fires. But all these compelling arguments can only be considered favorable conditions that accompanied the success of the Moscow princes.

But in politics you cannot rely only on such an ephemeral thing as success. Politics must be skillful, insightful, far-sighted. And almost all the Moscow princes fully possessed keen business acumen, ingenuity and insight. And, which is also important for successful politics, the princes of Moscow never suffered from an excess of honesty and other moral qualities. Moscow was first mentioned in the Russian chronicle in 1147 as a small fortress, which was erected on the Moscow River by the Vladimir prince Yury Dolgoruky. Until the 13th century, the Moscow principality did not play any serious role in the political life of the appanage principalities.

Unification of Russian lands around Moscow

Her gradual but steady rise begins with the reign of her son Alexander Nevsky, fifteen-year-old Daniel, who is considered the founder of the Moscow princely house. He begins to annex nearby lands - Kolomna and Pereyaslavl-Zalessky - to the small territory of his principality. His son Yuri annexed the Mozhaisk principality and a long and stubborn struggle for the great reign with the Tver princes began. Moreover, in this fight they do not hesitate to use any means. Everything is used - military raids, bribery, slander. The Moscow princes always knew how to use these means more skillfully than their rivals, and the next Moscow prince, Ivan Danilovich, who received the very accurate nickname Kalita, confirmed this in practice.

The Ryazan principality was destroyed first, then the Mongols plundered the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. March 4, 1238 City was defeated at the Battle of the River Russian army, the Grand Duke died Yuri Vsevolodovich. in autumn 1239 destroyed Principality of Chernigov, V 1240- Kiev, and in 1241 - Galicia-Volyn. To govern the Russian lands, the Mongol khans (leaders) issued a label (letter) for the great reign of Vladimir. The Mongols made sure that not a single principality and not a single prince rose above the rest; this could lead to the consolidation of the forces of the Russian princes.

In the event of uprisings against the Baskaks (governors), the Mongols sent punitive detachments that went through the entire principality with fire and sword. The Mongols imposed 14 types of tribute on Rus', including “tribute of blood” (Russian soldiers were taken into the Mongol army). In general, the Mongol invasion had a negative impact on the economic, political and cultural development of Rus'. Tens of thousands of people died, many principalities fell into decay, cities were destroyed, some of them were never restored. Agricultural centers were abandoned, and some types of crafts were irretrievably lost. The payment of huge tribute slowed down the development of individual lands; The policy of transferring the label to the great reign caused disunity among the princes.

DEVELOPMENT OF CAPITALISM

After Peasant reform of 1861. In Russia, capitalism began to establish itself as the dominant mode of production. Capitalist relations in Russia were distinguished by a number of features: the country retained landownership and the peasant community; autocracy. The economy was characterized by a multi-structure: large-scale capitalist production coexisted with patriarchal peasant farming. There were sharp disproportions among sectors of the economy: industry experienced rapid growth, while agriculture continued to remain stagnant. The process of initial capital accumulation was delayed.

This opened the way for widespread penetration of foreign investment into the Russian economy. In the main sphere of the economy - the agricultural sector - capitalist transformations occurred slowly. But the country was undergoing a process of redistribution of land property. Many landowners went bankrupt, and part of their lands were bought up by the rural bourgeoisie. Agriculture continued to develop along an extensive path. The growth of agricultural products was carried out mainly due to the expansion of sown areas and the development of new areas. But some farms mastered the basic techniques of labor intensification: they used advanced agricultural machinery and increased the agrotechnical level. This contributed to the transformation of the agricultural sector into a commodity production sector. But the incompleteness of capitalist transformation Agriculture maintained tension between peasants and landowners. This created the preconditions for future social upheavals.

In industries, capitalism developed at an accelerated pace. The abolition of serfdom led to the emergence of a free labor force.

Played a leading role light (especially textile and food) industry. Heavy industry was also gaining momentum. New industries developed intensively - coal, oil, and chemical industries. However, domestic mechanical engineering was poorly developed. In many industries, foreign capital occupied a dominant position.

In Russia there was quite strong government intervention in the industrial sector. This served as the basis for the formation of a system of state capitalism. The industrial development of Russia was also facilitated by the accelerated development of transport, primarily the railway network. Their creation more closely connected various regions of the country with each other and contributed to the development of trade relations. The development of capitalist relations changed social structure and the appearance of classes, formed new social groups - the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.

Reign Ivana 4. From reforms to oprichnina.

In 1549 it was formed the reform party, led by the Tsar’s favorite Alexei Adashev, and called “ The chosen one is pleased" This included people close to the tsar - clerk Ivan Viskovaty, Metropolitan Macarius, priest Sylvester, A.M. Kurbsky. From this time on, the era of the reign of Ivan the Terrible began, marked by successes in internal affairs and foreign policy.

Ivan IV with the Elected Rada carried out a number of reforms aimed at centralizing the Russian state. The nature of the reforms was influenced by the Moscow uprising of 1547, which showed the tsar that his power was not autocratic. The first step was the convening of the Zemsky Sobor, or Great Zemstvo Duma, in 1550. Ivan IV made it clear that the time of boyar autocracy was over, and he was taking the reins of power into his own hands. The fruit of the meeting was a new edition of the judicial code, which repeated the Code of Laws of 1477, but corrected and supplemented by various decrees and charters related to the improvement of judicial procedures. In 1551, a Church Council was convened, where the “Royal Questions” were read.

All these questions, along with the answers, were divided into one hundred chapters, which is why the entire cathedral code was called Stoglav. Stoglav has the same national significance as the Code of Laws. Church reform Ivan the Terrible concerned monastic land ownership. In May 1551, a decree was issued on the confiscation of all lands and lands transferred by the Boyar Duma to bishops and monasteries after death Vasily III. This law prohibited the church from acquiring new lands without reporting to the government. Simultaneously with the judicial reform, the Elected Rada began to streamline localism. In 1553, Ivan the Terrible introduced printing in Rus'. Printing became a new craft, headed by Ivan Fedorov.

In order to strengthen armed forces, Adashev's government began organizing a permanent streltsy army and formed a three-thousand-strong streltsy detachment for the personal protection of the tsar. Central point foreign policy Ivan the Terrible was the final crushing of the Tatar power. In 1552 Kazan was taken, and in 1556 the tsarist troops captured Astrakhan. The defeat of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates put an end to the three-century reign of the Tatars in the Volga region. Following this, the Bashkirs announced their voluntary accession to Russia, the rulers of the Great Nogai Horde and the Siberian Khanate, the princes of Pyatigorsk and Kabarda in the North Caucasus recognized themselves as vassals of the tsar.

But on the other hand, the conquest of Kazan and Astrakhan strengthened the hostile attitude of the Crimean Horde towards us. At that time, Ivan IV was busy with the Livonian War that began in 1556, so he abandoned the idea of ​​attacking Crimea. At the second stage of reforms, a unified order system emerged. Foreign relations were concentrated in the Ambassadorial Prikaz, military affairs - in the Razryadny Prikaz, land affairs - in the Local Prikaz, complaints addressed to the tsar were accepted by the Petition Prikaz. The Boyar Duma controlled the activities of the orders. The adoption of the order system led to the abolition of “feedings” in 1556. With the coming to power of the Chosen Rada, Ivan the Terrible's reforms acquired a pronounced anti-boyar orientation.

Soon, Ivan IV began to become more and more burdened by his advisers, he was worried by the thought that they were leading him and did not give him free rein in anything. Therefore, in 1560, the king dispersed the Rada. This was followed by the era of executions and oprichnina.

In 1564 all royal family left the capital, taking with her the treasury and church treasures, and stopped in Alexandrovskaya Sloboda. Ivan the Terrible announced his abdication of the throne, counting on persuasion to return. In February 1565, the tsar returned to Moscow and assumed power on the terms he put forward.

Ivan the Terrible established the oprichnina with its own system of government, army and territory, and transferred the Moscow state (zemshchina) to the management of the Boyar Duma. The Tsar assumed unlimited powers to deal with “disobedient” boyars without consulting the Duma.

The oprichnina included the most economically profitable counties in the country, which served as the main source of income for the oprichnina treasury.

The Tsar insisted that the creation of the oprichnina was necessary to combat the abuse of power of the boyars and their treason. A period of bloody executions began, the beating of citizens in droves, and the barbaric destruction of cities. This period of the era of Ivan IV the Terrible was called the “Time of Troubles.”

Troubles 1598-1613. - a period in Russian history called the Time of Troubles. At the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries, Russia was experiencing a political and socio-economic crisis. The Livonian War and the Tatar invasion, as well as the oprichnina of Ivan the Terrible, contributed to the intensification of the crisis and the growth of discontent. This was the reason for the beginning of the Time of Troubles in Russia.

First period of turmoil characterized by the struggle for the throne of various pretenders. After the death of Ivan the Terrible, his son Fedor came to power, but he turned out to be unable to rule and was actually ruled by the brother of the king’s wife - Boris Godunov. Ultimately, his policies caused discontent among the popular masses.

Troubles began with the appearance in Poland False Dmitry(in reality Grigory Otrepiev), the allegedly miraculously surviving son of Ivan the Terrible. He won over a significant part of the Russian population to his side. In 1605, False Dmitry was supported by the governors, and then Moscow. And already in June he became the legitimate king. But he acted too independently, which caused discontent among the boyars; he also supported serfdom, which caused protest from the peasants. On May 17, 1606, False Dmitry I was killed and V.I. ascended the throne. Shuisky, with the condition of limiting power. Thus, the first stage of the Troubles was marked by the reign of False Dmitry I (1605 - 1606)

Second period of troubles. In 1606, an uprising arose, the leader of which was I.I. Bolotnikov. The ranks of the militia included people from different walks of life: peasants, serfs, small and medium-sized feudal lords, servicemen, Cossacks and townspeople. They were defeated in the battle of Moscow. As a result, Bolotnikov was executed.

But dissatisfaction with the authorities continued. And soon appears False Dmitry II. In January 1608, his army headed towards Moscow. By June, False Dmitry II entered the village of Tushino near Moscow, where he settled. In Russia, 2 capitals were formed: boyars, merchants, officials worked on 2 fronts, sometimes even receiving salaries from both kings. Shuisky concluded an agreement with Sweden and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth began aggressive military operations. False Dmitry II fled to Kaluga. Shuisky was tonsured a monk and taken to the Chudov Monastery. An interregnum began in Russia - the Seven Boyars (a council of 7 boyars). The Boyar Duma made a deal with the Polish interventionists and on August 17, 1610, Moscow swore allegiance to the Polish king Vladislav.

At the end of 1610, False Dmitry II was killed, but the struggle for the throne did not end there. So, the second stage has been marked uprising I.I. Bolotnikov (1606 - 1607), the reign of Vasily Shuisky (1606 - 1610), the appearance of False Dmitry II, as well as the Seven Boyars (1610).

Third period of troubles characterized by the fight against foreign invaders. After the death of False Dmitry II, the Russians united against the Poles. The war acquired a national character. In August 1612, the militia of K. Minin and D. Pozharsky reached Moscow. And already on October 26, the Polish garrison surrendered. Moscow was liberated. The time of troubles is over.

On February 21, 1613, the Zemsky Sobor appointed Mikhail Romanov as Tsar. Results of the Troubles were depressing: the country was in a terrible situation, the treasury was ruined, trade and crafts were in decline. The consequences of the Troubles for Russia were expressed in its backwardness compared to European countries. It took decades to restore the economy.

Strengthening autocratic power under Alexei Mikhailovich.

The strengthening of tsarist power largely occurred during the war with Poland. Many issues had to be resolved quickly and wisely. When Alexey Mikhailovich was in the active army, his orders concerning both the army and the internal structure of the country were also obliged to be carried out immediately and unquestioningly. there was no time to collect Zemsky Sobors. And it is no coincidence that it is during the war that they gradually die off. Competent, capable people are increasingly coming to the fore, sometimes pushing well-born, elderly, long-thinking people into the shadows.

At the same time, the tsar created the so-called nearby, or secret, Duma, where all the most important issues were resolved effectively and without delay according to the state. An important direction in strengthening the autocracy in Russia was the every possible exaltation of “His Sovereign Majesty.” It was a well thought out policy. The Tsar appeared in public extremely rarely, only on days of major state celebrations and major religious holidays. His passage through the streets of the capital or other cities of the country was accompanied by a special ritual. Everyone they met had to dismount from their horses, take off their caps and hats, and bow and stand at attention.

The tsar's appearances at meetings with foreign ambassadors, his appearance in the Boyar Duma, and his pilgrimage trips were arranged with extraordinary pomp and wealth. The king came out in luxurious attire, trimmed with gold, silver, precious stones. A special role in the development of rituals for the king’s ceremonial appearances on the days Orthodox holidays The Church played. The Moscow patriarchs took a personal part in raising the prestige of the sovereign of all Rus'. The Tsar's appearances at ceremonial services in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin were reminiscent of the appearance of the Divine to the people.

Nothing like Russia in the first half of the 17th century. dont know. Such exaltation of the king’s personality was associated with changes in historical events in the country. The Code of 1649, as we remember, emphasized the inviolability and highest rank of royal power. In this sense, the clergy had a particularly great influence, which persistently introduced among the people the idea of ​​the God-given power of the tsar in Russia, of the Russian Tsar as the heir of the Orthodox Byzantine Empire, as the leader of the entire Orthodox world. After the devastation of the Time of Troubles, endless wars and civil strife, the people needed a ruler who would be their common intercessor and defender. This is how the appearance of the Russian monarch developed during the decades of the 17th century.

Genghis Khan(in childhood and adolescence - Temujin, Temujin) is the founder and also the first Great Khan of the Mongol Empire. During his reign, he, like Prince Oleg and other Russian princes, united many disparate tribes (in this case, Mongolian and partially Tatar) into one powerful state.

Genghis Khan's whole life after gaining power consisted of many campaigns of conquest in Asia and later in Europe. Thanks to this, in 2000, the American edition of the New York Times named him the man of the millennium (meaning the period from 1000 to 2000 - during this time he created the largest empire in human history).

By 1200, Temujin united all the Mongol tribes, and by 1202 - the Tatar ones. By 1223-1227, Genghis Khan simply wiped out many ancient states from the face of the earth, such as:

• Volga Bulgaria;
• Baghdad Caliphate;
• Chinese Empire ;
• the state of the Khorezmshahs (the territories of present-day Iran (Persia), Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Iraq and many other small states of Central and South-West Asia).

Genghis Khan died in 1227 from inflammation after a hunting injury (or from a virus or bacteria not native to East Asia - let's not forget about the level of medicine at that time) at the age of about 65 years.

The beginning of the Mongol invasion.

By the early 1200s, Genghis Khan was already planning the conquest of Eastern Europe. Later, after his death, the Mongols reached Germany and Italy, conquering Poland, Hungary, Ancient Rus' and so on, including attacks on the Baltic states and other lands of northern and northeastern Europe. Long before this, on behalf of Genghis Khan, his sons Jochi, Jebe and Subedei set off to conquer the territories adjacent to Rus', simultaneously testing the soil of the Old Russian state .

The Mongols, using force or threats, conquered the Alans (present-day Ossetia), the Volga Bulgars and most of the lands of the Cumans, as well as the territories of the South and North Caucasus, and Kuban.

After the Polovtsians turned to the Russian princes for help, a council gathered in Kyiv under the leadership of Mstislav Svyatoslavovich, Mstislav Mstislavovich and Mstislav Romanovich. All the Mstislavs then came to the conclusion that, having finished off the Polovtsian princes, Tatar-Mongols will take over Rus', and in the worst case scenario, the Polovtsians will go over to the side Mongols, and together they will attack the Russian principalities. Guided by the principle “it is better to beat the enemy on foreign soil than on your own,” the Mstislavs gathered an army and moved south along the Dnieper.

Thanks to intelligence Mongol-Tatars learned about this and began to prepare for the meeting, having previously sent ambassadors to the Russian army.

The ambassadors brought the news that the Mongols did not touch the Russian lands and were not going to touch them, saying they only had scores to settle with the Polovtsians, and expressed a desire for Rus' not to interfere in matters that were not their own. Genghis Khan was often guided by the principle of “divide and conquer,” but the princes did not fall for this move. Historians also admit that stopping the campaign could, at best, delay the Mongol attack on Rus'. One way or another, the ambassadors were executed, and the campaign continued. A little later, the Tatar-Mongols sent a second embassy with a repeated request - this time they were released, but the campaign continued.

Battle of the Kalka River.

In the Azov region, somewhere in the territory of the present Donetsk region, a clash occurred, known in history as Battle of Kalka. Before this, the Russian princes defeated the vanguard of the Mongol-Tatars and, emboldened by their success, entered into battle near the river now known as Kalchik (which flows into the Kalmius). Exact amount The troops of the parties are unknown. Russian historians call the number of Russians from 8 to 40 thousand, and the number of Mongols from 30 to 50 thousand. Asian chronicles talk about almost a hundred thousand Russians, which is not surprising (remember how Mao Zedong boasted that Stalin served him at a tea ceremony, although the Soviet leader only showed hospitality and handed him a mug of tea). Adequate historians, based on the fact that Russian princes usually gathered from 5 to 10 thousand soldiers on a campaign (maximum 15 thousand), came to the conclusion that there were about 10-12 thousand Russian troops, and about 15-25 thousand Tatar-Mongols ( considering that Genghis Khan sent 30 thousand to the west, but some of them were defeated as part of forward detachment, as well as in previous battles with the Alans, Cumans, etc., plus a discount for the fact that not all reserves available to the Mongols could participate in the battle).

So, the battle began on May 31, 1223. The beginning of the battle was successful for the Russians; Prince Daniil Romanovich defeated the advanced positions of the Mongols and rushed to pursue them, despite his injury. But then he encountered the main forces of the Mongol-Tatars. By that time, part of the Russian army had already managed to cross the river. The Mongol forces closed in and defeated the Russians and Cumans, while the rest of the Cuman forces fled. The rest of the Mongol-Tatar forces surrounded the troops of the Prince of Kyiv. The Mongols offered to surrender with the promise that then “no blood would be shed. Mstislav Svyatoslavovich fought the longest, who surrendered only on the third day of the battle. The Mongol leaders kept their promise extremely conditionally: they took all the ordinary soldiers into slavery, and executed the princes (as they promised - without shedding blood, they covered them with planks along which the entire Mongol-Tatar army marched in formation).

After this, the Mongols did not dare to go to Kyiv, and went to conquer the remnants of the Volga Bulgars, but the battle progressed unsuccessfully, and they retreated and returned to Genghis Khan. The Battle of the Kalka River was the beginning

Mongol invasion of Rus'

The Mongol yoke (Mongol-Tatar, Tatar-Mongol, Horde) is the traditional name for the system of exploitation of Russian lands by nomadic conquerors who came from the East from 1237 to 1480.

780 years ago, on the night of December 20-21, 1237, Batu’s troops took Ryazan by storm.

One of the most tragic pages national history- Invasion of the Mongol-Tatars. The passionate appeal to the Russian princes about the need for unification, sounded from the lips of the unknown author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” alas, was never heard...

Reasons for the Mongol-Tatar invasion

The Mongol invasion of Rus' In the 12th century, nomadic Mongol tribes occupied a significant territory in the center of Asia. In 1206, a congress of the Mongolian nobility - the kurultai - proclaimed Timuchin the great Kagan and gave him the name Genghis Khan. In 1223, the advanced troops of the Mongols, led by the commanders Jabei and Subidei, attacked the Cumans. Seeing no other way out, they decided to resort to the help of Russian princes. Having united, both of them set out towards the Mongols. The squads crossed the Dnieper and moved east. Pretending to retreat, the Mongols lured the combined army to the banks of the Kalka River.

On May 31, 1223, the decisive battle took place. The coalition troops acted separately. The princes' disputes with each other did not stop. Some of them did not take part in the battle at all. The result was complete destruction. However, then the Mongols did not go to Rus', because did not have sufficient strength. In 1227, Genghis Khan died. He bequeathed to his fellow tribesmen to conquer the whole world. In 1235, the kurultai decided to begin a new campaign in Europe. It was headed by the grandson of Genghis Khan - Batu

Stages of the Mongol-Tatar invasion

In 1236, after the destruction of Volga Bulgaria, the Mongols moved towards the Don, against the Polovtsians, defeating the latter in December 1237. Then the Ryazan principality stood in their way. After a six-day assault, Ryazan fell. The city was destroyed. Batu's troops moved north to Vladimir, destroying Kolomna and Moscow along the way. In February 1238, Batu's troops began the siege of Vladimir. The Grand Duke tried in vain to gather a militia to decisively repel the Mongols. After a four-day siege, Vladimir was stormed and set on fire. The city's residents and the princely family, who were hiding in the Assumption Cathedral, were burned alive.

The Mongols split up: some of them approached the Sit River, and the second besieged Torzhok. On March 4, 1238, the Russians suffered a brutal defeat in the City, the prince died. The Mongols moved towards Novgorod, however, before reaching a hundred miles, they turned around. Ruining the cities on the way back, they met unexpectedly stubborn resistance from the city of Kozelsk, whose residents repelled Mongol attacks for seven weeks. Still, taking it by storm, the khan called Kozelsk an “evil city” and razed it to the ground.

Batu's invasion of Southern Rus' dates back to the spring of 1239. Pereslavl fell in March. In October – Chernigov. In September 1240, Batu's main forces besieged Kyiv, which at that time belonged to Daniil Romanovich Galitsky. The Kievans managed to hold back the hordes of Mongols for three whole months, and only at the cost of huge losses were they able to capture the city. By the spring of 1241, Batu’s troops were on the threshold of Europe. However, drained of blood, they were soon forced to return to the Lower Volga. The Mongols no longer decided on a new campaign. So Europe was able to breathe a sigh of relief.

Consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion

The Russian land lay in ruins. The cities were burned and plundered, the inhabitants were captured and taken to the Horde. Many cities were never rebuilt after the invasion. In 1243, Batu organized the Golden Horde in the west of the Mongol Empire. The captured Russian lands were not included in its composition. The dependence of these lands on the Horde was expressed in the fact that the obligation to pay annual tribute hung over them. In addition, it was the Golden Horde Khan who now approved the Russian princes to rule with his labels and charters. Thus, Horde rule was established over Russia for almost two and a half centuries.

Interesting Facts

Some modern historians are inclined to argue that there was no yoke, that the “Tatars” were immigrants from Tartary, crusaders, that a battle between Orthodox Christians and Catholics took place on the Kulikovo Field, and Mamai was just a pawn in someone else’s game. Is this really so - let everyone decide for themselves.

Why did they create a fake about the “Mongol” invasion of Rus'?

The “Tatar-Mongol” invasion began. We must know and remember that the fake about “Mongols from Mongolia” was launched by Catholic Rome, the then “command post” of the Western community.

Cavalry, drawing from 1895. Photo from wikimedia.org

Batu’s hordes attacked Rus', took Ryazan, devastated the Ryazan principality, the invasion of the rest of the Russian lands began, cities and villages burned, fierce battles took place - all this is historical truth.

The horde of the Great Khan-Prince Batu took over the fragmented Russia, where most of the princes “pulled the blanket” over themselves. The fragmentation of Rus' did not make it possible to assemble a common army that could repel the invasion of the steppes.

At the same time, we must remember that the myth of the "Mongols from Mongolia" was started by the papal spy Plano Carpini and other agents of Rome. No Mongols from Mongolia ever reached Rus'. It was simply impossible - there would be nothing to feed a huge army of hundreds of thousands of warriors and even more horses.

And the Mongols during this period simply did not correspond to the great conquerors who decided to conquer the entire “universe.” They were at a low stage of development - the decomposition of tribal relations, and had neither military-economic potential, nor human resources, nor corresponding passionarity.

As we know from history, great empires and powers are created by the combination of several factors: 1) military-economic potential, the ability to field, arm and supply a powerful army; 2) advanced technologies, military revolution, for example, the domestication of the horse and its use in warfare, iron weapons, the Macedonian phalanx, Roman legions, etc.; 3) demographic factor - the conquering people must have the appropriate numbers in order to field big army and control the conquered spaces; 4) passionarity - a great idea, mission, the ability to die for the sake of a great cause.

For example, the current American empire, the “world gendarme”, has these factors: the world’s first economy and the most powerful military-industrial complex, armed forces that control a significant part of the planet; advanced developments in the military field; significant population - more than 325 million people (third largest in the world); American messianism - the construction of the American world order, the defense of “democracy” and “human rights.”

In the past, similar factors can be identified in the Soviet Union (Red Empire), Russian Empire, Second and Third Reichs (Germany), Roman Empire. Another example is the empire of Alexander the Great: the military and financial reforms of King Philip created a military-economic potential for conquest, the Macedonian phalanx became a revolution in military affairs; Alexander and his warriors were true passionaries, ready to overcome fire and water for their goal.

Thus, a bunch of Mongolian shepherds and hunters who had neither a military-industrial base and organization, nor a corresponding number and morale, in no way could conquer the Rurikovich empire, even fragmented.

No great leader, like Temujin-Genghis Khan, could have created an invincible invasion army from small and semi-wild clans that did not have the appropriate technological and production base, capable of crushing a number of strong states, conquering China, and fighting all the way to Central Europe.

Iron discipline, the decimal system of army organization, great archers and horsemen - all this already existed. In particular, in Russian squads. Since ancient times, Russian squads and armies were divided into tens, hundreds, thousands and darkness (10 thousand fighters). The Russian compound bow was much more powerful and longer-range than the famous English bow.

“Mongols” and “Tatars” - representatives of the Mongoloid race who subjugated a significant part of Eurasia, simply did not exist. However, there was an ancient Scythian-Siberian world of pagan Rus, inheriting the traditions of many millennia dating back to the times of the Aryans and Hyperboreans. These were the heirs of the most ancient northern civilization, which had its origins in the very origins of the white race.

From the legendary Hyperborea, the Aryan world and Great Scythia, which occupies a vast territory from the Pacific Ocean, the borders of China, India and Persia to the Baltic and the Black (Russian) Sea. Actually, Russian civilization and the Russian superethnos as a direct heir to the ancient northern tradition, still occupies most of this territory.

The spiritual, cultural and military impulses of this northern civilization led to the emergence and development Ancient Persia, India (they still remember their northern ancestral home there), China and other civilizations.

Scythian-Siberian Rus in anthropological (white skin, light eyes, tall), cultural (general traditions, customs, faith, material culture, including weapons and combat skills), economic relations were direct relatives of the Rus who lived in the territory of Ryazan, Vladimir -Suzdal, Novgorod and Kievan and Galician Rus.

Before the destruction by the West of the Slavic-Russian tribes of Central Europe (Porussia-Prussia, Germany, Austria, Northern Italy), they were also part of the huge superethnos of the Rus, a single ethnocultural and linguistic community.

The peculiarity of the Scythian-Siberian world of the Rus was that for thousands of years they led a semi-nomadic (developed animal husbandry) and at the same time an agricultural way of life. They also retained the pagan faith. True, the Rus of Vladimir-Suzdal and Novgorod Rus' were still, for the most part, still dual-believers and retained many pagan beliefs and rituals.

Only this huge fragment of Great Scythia - the Scythian-Siberian world, which had a thousand-year history, a powerful military-production base, significant numbers, and fighting spirit, could field a strong army that once again shocked the world.

It was they who conquered Central Asia, China, defeated and subjugated another fragment of Great Scythia - the Polovtsians (they were also not “Mongoloids”, but typical northern Caucasians), the Volgar-Bulgars (Tatars), invaded Rus', and then moved to Europe. Horde is Rod, Rada, tumen is darkness, the word khan comes from “kokhan, kohan, “beloved, respected.”

The so-called “Mongols” did not bring to Rus' a single Mongolian word or a single skull of a representative of the Mongoloid race. There were no “Mongols” in Rus'. “Tatar-Mongols”, Polovtsy and Rus of Ryazan, Vladimir and Kyiv were representatives of a single super-ethnic group. Therefore, later, when the administrative center of the Eurasian Empire moved from Sarai to Moscow, the overwhelming majority of the Horde’s population simply became Russian.

Since there were no anthropological, indigenous linguistic and cultural differences between the Russians from Moscow and Kyiv and the Horde. If during the time of the Golden Horde the population of the Horde and Rus' was approximately equal, then after the fall of the Horde Empire, most of its population (former Cumans) became Russian. At the same time, the Russians did not receive Mongoloid features (Mongoloid features are dominant), nor Mongolian words.

It is worth remembering that there was a war, the fights between the Rus of Ryazan, Vladimir, Chernigov and Kyiv and the pagan Rus of the Scythian-Siberian world were tough. It was a horrific battle, a Great Controversy. Only Russians can fight like that.

Prince Batu won this war. At the same time, they both fought and fraternized, as happened with Prince Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky and Batu and his son, became related (as before with the Polovtsians - they were our own, not strangers), spoke the same language, quarreled again, fought and made peace. Later they completely mixed up.

Some of the Scythian Rus converted to Orthodoxy, others settled in the Golden Horde, Central Asia and China - gave the local tribes princely and imperial dynasties (all this happened before, during the time of Great Scythia).

What Western falsifier historians call the Great Empire of Genghis Khan was in fact the Great Empire of the Rus. They began to rewrite history a very long time ago, not in the 20th century, when Westerners, for example, made a revision Great War in your own interests. History was rewritten by historians of the Romano-Germanic world, chroniclers of the Roman Catholic Church, historians of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) and Roman empires.

The real center for the distortion of human history is Rome, the oldest “command post” for the control of the West. The masters of the West cannot admit that Rus'-Russia, the Russian superethnos, are the direct heirs and guardians of the most ancient northern civilization of mankind. This is the question " great game”, geopolitics - a multi-thousand-year battle for the right to be the “king of the hill” - the master of the planet.

This is not recognized in Japan and China either, hiding the traces of ancient civilization. Only in India do they directly say that their Aryan ancestors came from the north, from Russia. That Russians and white Indians are descendants of one great race.

Only Russians are the descendants of those who remained in their common ancestral home, preserving their language and physical signs. And the Indians “turned black” in the south. However, it was the Indians who preserved the ancient Vedic mythology, and India is a kind of “reserve” of our ancient traditions and customs. Hence the spiritual closeness of Russians and Hindus.

The masters of the West distort world history, replacing true story fakes, destroy and hide genuine monuments of the past, exaggerate and expand the chronological framework " historical peoples" - British, Germans, French, Italians, Jews, etc.

At the same time, they cut off and distort the history of the Slavs and Russian-Russians, nurturing myths about the “savagery,” “defectiveness,” “inferiority,” “secondary nature” of Rus', which has always allegedly borrowed everything from the West or East, etc. This information war. And history plays a leading role in it.

Managing history allows you to “program” the course of events for centuries to come. Even create new “peoples”, like “Ukrainians”, who are Russians, but turn into an “independent” people separate from the Russians.

I ruined it Great Empire Rusov new conceptual and ideological sabotage. Islam began to be introduced in the south, which was of interest to part of the elite elite. It has become main reason schism, turmoil and further disintegration.

Islam, which originated in a Semitic environment, introduced into the society of the Indo-European-Aryans principles and customs unusual for them, leading to the degeneration and degeneration of the outlying clans of the Rus. The most striking example is Iran (“the state of the Aryans”). Persia is Indo-European, whose Aryan population was forced to convert to Islam. As a result, Semitization (Arabization) and Islamization of one of the ancient Aryan civilizations occurred.

However, Genghis Khan's empire did not perish. Northern civilization, as it had happened more than once in the past, took on a new form. The center of control shifted from the Horde to Moscow. There was a merger of European and Scythian-Siberian Rus. This made Rus' a continental empire, from ocean to ocean. And Rus' again challenged the masters of the West. Big game continues.

Thus, there were no “Mongols from Mongolia” in Rus'. The hordes of Rus of the Scythian-Siberian world, stretching from the Northern Black Sea region to the Altai and Sayan Mountains, including Mongolia, came to European Russia. The ancestors of today's Mongols were then at a low stage of development, they were hunters, cattle breeders, and did not have the military-industrial, demographic and cultural potential for great conquests.

The Scythian Rus were Caucasians, the Aryan Rus were Pagan and Asian Rus. In essence, two passionate cores of a single superethnos of the Rus collided - European and Asian. Two parts of Great Scythia, an ancient northern civilization that existed for thousands of years from the Pacific Ocean to the Varangian and Russian (Black) seas, the Carpathians, from the Arctic Ocean to the borders of China, India and Persia.

It was later that the southern clans of the Rus would be Islamized and subjected to assimilation by the Turkic, Mongoloid and Semitic peoples of Asia. But in the 13th century, the Rus-Scythians came to Rus', and not the “Mongols” or the Turks. And as we know from history, the most fierce, furious battles are internecine, when brother opposes brother. The battle was fierce, many cities and villages were reduced to ashes, and many thousands of people died.

But every cloud has a silver lining. First, European Rus' became part of a huge empire - the Golden Horde. Then, with the degradation and destruction of the Horde, inspired by our external enemies, its collapse, a new center of the Eurasian Empire of the Rus matured.

The Rurik Empire turned into a Eurasian Russian Empire under Ivan the Terrible. The Russians once again united the vast territory of the ancient northern civilization into a single power. The descendants of the Rus-Horde became part of a single superethnos of the Rus. Rus' became the heir to an ancient super-civilization. The West was unable to gain dominance on the planet, and the war continued.