home Diagnosis and diseases All about natural areas. Message on the topic of natural areas

All about natural areas. Message on the topic of natural areas

"" Photo: Aziz J.Hayat Belt zoning

The Sun heats the spherical surface of the Earth unequally: the areas above which it stands high receive the most heat. The farther from the equator, the greater the angle at which the rays reach the earth's surface and, therefore, the less thermal energy per unit area. Above the poles, the rays of the Sun only glide over the Earth. The climate depends on this: hot at the equator, harsh and cold at the poles. The main features of the distribution of vegetation and fauna are also associated with this. Based on the characteristics of heat distribution, seven thermal zones are distinguished. In each hemisphere there are zones of eternal frost (around the poles), cold, temperate. Hot belt at the equator - one for both hemispheres. Thermal zones are the basis for dividing the earth's surface into geographical zones: areas that are similar in the prevailing types of landscapes - natural-territorial complexes that have common climate, soil, vegetation and wildlife.

At and near the equator there is a belt of humid equatorial and sub equatorial forests(from Latin sub - under), to the north and south of it, replacing each other, stretch the zones of the tropics and subtropics with forests, deserts and savannas, the temperate zone with steppes, forest-steppes and forests, then the treeless spaces of the tundra, and finally , at the poles there are polar deserts.

But the Earth's land surface in different places not only receives different amounts of solar energy, but also has many additional dissimilar conditions - for example, distance from the oceans, uneven terrain (mountain systems or plains) and, finally, unequal height above sea level. Each of these conditions greatly affects the natural features of the Earth.

Hot belt. The equator itself has virtually no seasons; it is humid and hot here all year round. When moving away from the equator, in subequatorial zones, the year is divided into drier and wetter seasons. There are savannas, woodlands and mixed evergreen deciduous tropical forests.

Near the tropics, the climate becomes drier; deserts and semi-deserts are located here. The most famous of them are the Sahara, Namib and Kalahari in Africa, the Arabian Desert and Thar in Eurasia, Atacama in South America, Victoria in Australia.

There are two temperate zones on Earth (in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres). There is a clear change of seasons here, which differ greatly from each other. In the Northern Hemisphere, the northern border of the belt is bordered by coniferous forests - taiga, which are replaced to the south by mixed and broad-leaved forests, and then by forest-steppes and steppes. In the interior regions of continents, where the influence of seas and oceans is almost not felt, there may even be deserts (for example, the Gobi Desert in Mongolia, the Karakum Desert in Central Asia).

Polar belts. The lack of heat leads to the fact that in these zones there are practically no forests, the soil is swampy, and permafrost is found in places. At the poles, where the climate is most severe, continental ice appears (as in Antarctica) or sea ice(as in the Arctic). Vegetation is absent or represented by mosses and lichens.

Vertical zonality is also related to the amount of heat, but it only depends on the altitude above sea level. As you climb the mountains, the climate, soil type, vegetation and wildlife change. Interestingly, even in hot countries you can find tundra landscapes and even icy deserts. But in order to see it, you have to climb high into the mountains. Thus, in the tropical and equatorial zones of the Andes of South America and in the Himalayas, landscapes successively change from wet rain forests to alpine meadows and zones of eternal glaciers and snow. It cannot be said that the altitudinal zone completely repeats the latitudinal geographical zones, because in the mountains and on the plains many conditions are not repeated. The most diverse range of altitudinal zones is near the equator, for example on the highest peaks of Africa, Mount Kilimanjaro, Kenya, Margherita Peak, and in South America on the slopes of the Andes.

Natural areas

Among the natural zones there are those confined to a specific zone. For example, the zone of Arctic and Antarctic ice deserts and the tundra zone are located in the Arctic and Antarctic belts; the forest-tundra zone corresponds to the subarctic and subantarctic zones, and the taiga, mixed and deciduous forests correspond to the temperate zone. And such natural zones as prairies, forest-steppes and steppes and semi-deserts are common in both temperate, tropical and subtropical zones, having, of course, their own characteristics.

Natural zones, their climatic features, soils, vegetation and fauna of each continent are described in Chapter 10 and in the table “Continents (reference information)”. Here we will only focus on general outline natural zones as the largest natural-territorial complexes.

Arctic and Antarctic desert zone

Air temperatures are constantly very low and there is little precipitation. On rare ice-free areas of land - rocky deserts (in Antarctica they are called oases), sparse vegetation is represented by lichens and mosses, flowering plants are rare (only two species have been found in Antarctica), soils are practically absent.

Tundra zone

The tundra zone is widespread in the Arctic and subarctic zones, forming a strip 300-500 km wide, stretching along the northern coasts of Eurasia and North America and the islands of the Arctic Ocean. In the Southern Hemisphere, areas of tundra vegetation are found on some islands near Antarctica.
The climate is harsh with strong winds, snow cover lasts up to 7-9 months, the long polar night gives way to short and humid summers (summer temperatures do not exceed 10 °C). Precipitation falls a little - 200-400 mm, mostly in solid form, but it does not have time to evaporate, and the tundra is characterized by excessive moisture, an abundance of lakes and swamps, which is facilitated by widespread permafrost. The main distinctive feature of the tundra is treelessness, the predominance of sparse moss-lichen, and sometimes grass, cover; in the southern parts with dwarf and creeping shrubs and shrubs. The soils are tundra-gley.

Forest-tundra and woodland zone

Zone of forest-tundra and woodlands. This is a transition zone, which is characterized by alternation of treeless tundra areas and forests (open woodlands), and combines the characteristics of the zones bordering it. Tundra natural complexes are characteristic of watershed areas; open forests climb north along river valleys. To the south, the areas occupied by forests increase.
In the Southern Hemisphere (subantarctic belt), the forest-tundra on islands (for example, South Georgia) is replaced by oceanic meadows. For more information about the tundra zone, see characteristics of the tundra.

Forest zone

The forest zone in the Northern Hemisphere includes the subzones of taiga, mixed and deciduous forests and the subzone of temperate forests; in the Southern Hemisphere only the subzone of mixed and deciduous forests is represented. Some scientists consider these subzones to be independent zones.
In the taiga subzone of the Northern Hemisphere, the climate varies from maritime to sharply continental. Summers are warm (10-20 °C, the severity of winter increases with distance from the ocean (in Eastern Siberia up to -50 °C), and the amount of precipitation decreases (from 600 to 200 mm). The amount of precipitation exceeds evaporation, and watersheds are often swampy, rivers are rich in water. Dark coniferous (spruce and fir) and light coniferous (larch in Siberia, where permafrost soils are common) forests predominate, poor in species composition, with an admixture of small-leaved species (birch, aspen) and pine, in the east of Eurasia - cedar. The soils are podzolic and permafrost. -taiga.
The subzone of mixed and deciduous forests (sometimes two independent subzones are distinguished) is distributed mainly in the oceanic and transitional belts continents. In the Southern Hemisphere it occupies small areas, winters here are much warmer and snow cover does not form everywhere. Coniferous-deciduous forests on soddy-podzolic soils are replaced in the interior parts of the continents by coniferous-small-leaved and small-leaved forests, and to the south (in North America) or to the west (in Europe) by broad-leaved forests of oak, maple, linden, ash, beech and hornbeam on gray forests soils.

Forest-steppe

Forest-steppe is a transitional natural zone of the Northern Hemisphere, with alternating forest and steppe natural complexes. Based on the nature of natural vegetation, forest-steppes with broad-leaved and coniferous-small-leaved forests and prairies are distinguished.

Prairies are a subzone of forest-steppe (sometimes considered a subzone of steppe) with abundant moisture, stretching along the eastern coasts of the Rocky Mountains in the United States and Canada with tall grasses on chernozem-like soils. Almost no natural vegetation has been preserved here. Similar landscapes are characteristic of the subtropics of eastern South America and East Asia.

Steppe

This natural zone is distributed in the northern temperate or both subtropical geographical zones and is a treeless area with herbaceous vegetation. Unlike the tundra, the growth of woody vegetation here is hampered not by low temperatures, but by a lack of moisture. Trees can grow only along river valleys (so-called gallery forests), in large erosive forms, such as ravines, collecting water from the surrounding interfluve spaces. Now most of the zone is plowed, irrigated agriculture and grazing livestock are developing in the subtropical zone. Soil erosion is highly developed on arable lands. Natural vegetation is represented by drought- and frost-resistant herbaceous plants with a predominance of turf grasses (feather grass, fescue, tonkonogo). The soils are fertile - chernozems, dark chestnut and chestnut in the temperate zone; brown, gray-brown, in places saline in the subtropical).
The subtropical steppe in South America (Argentina, Uruguay) is called pampa (i.e. plain, steppe in the language of the Quechua Indians). See vegetation and animals of the steppe.

Deserts and semi-deserts

These natural zones are distributed in six geographical zones - temperate, subtropical and tropical on both sides of the equator, where precipitation falls so little (10-30 times less evaporation) that the existence of living organisms is extremely difficult. Therefore, the grass cover is sparse and the soils are poorly developed. Great importance Under such conditions, the rocks that make up the territory acquire, and depending on them, clay deserts are distinguished (takyrs in Asia), rocky (hamads of the Sahara, Central Asia, Australia), sandy (Thar desert in India and Pakistan, North American deserts). In the temperate zone, deserts are formed in areas with a sharply continental climate; subtropical and tropical deserts owe their existence to constant pressure maxima of 20-30° latitudes. Rare areas of increased moisture (high groundwater levels, spring outlets, irrigation from nearby rivers, lakes, wells, etc.) - centers of population concentration, growth of trees, shrubs and herbaceous vegetation are called oases. Sometimes such oases occupy vast areas (for example, the Nile Valley stretches over tens of thousands of hectares). For more information, see: natural desert area.

Savannah

Savanna is a natural zone, distributed mainly in subequatorial zones, but also found in tropical and even subtropical zones. The main feature of the savannah climate is the clear alternation of dry and rainy periods. The duration of the rainy season decreases when moving from equatorial regions (here it can last 8-9 months) to tropical deserts (here the rainy season is 2-3 months). Savannas are characterized by dense and tall grass cover, trees standing alone or in small groups (acacia, baobab, eucalyptus) and so-called gallery forests along rivers. The soils of typical tropical savannas are red soils. In deserted savannas, the grass cover is sparse and the soils are red-brown. Tall grass savannas in South America, on the left bank of the river. Orinoco is called llanos (from Spanish “plain”). See also: vegetation and animals of the savanna.

Forest subtropics

Forest subtropics. The monsoon subtropical subzone is characteristic of the eastern margins of the continents, where seasonally changing circulation of air masses is formed at the contact between the ocean and the continent and there is a dry winter period and a wet summer with heavy monsoon rains, often with typhoons.

Thermal zones and natural areas

Evergreen and deciduous (those that lose their leaves in winter due to lack of moisture) with a wide variety of tree species grow here on red and yellow earth soils.
The Mediterranean subzone is characteristic of the western regions of the continents (Mediterranean, California, Chile, southern Australia and Africa). Precipitation occurs mainly in winter; summer is dry. Evergreen and broad-leaved forests on brown and brown soils and hard-leaved shrubs are well adapted to summer drought, the plants of which have adapted to hot and dry conditions: they have a waxy coating or pubescence on the leaves, thick or dense leathery bark, and secrete fragrant essential oils. See: animals of the subtropics.

Rainforests

More on the topic:
Taiga zone, plants and animals
Savannah
Characteristics of forest-tundra
Characteristics of the tundra
equatorial forest

Equatorial rain forests . Equatorial climate. Warm all year round (around 25°C), slight temperature fluctuations throughout the year, high rainfall all year round. Low pressure.

Savannah. Subequatorial climate. It's hot all year round. Precipitation falls unevenly throughout the year; there are dry and wet seasons. The main vegetation is grasses.

Deserts. In tropical deserts, precipitation is very rare. There is very little vegetation. Temperate deserts have a wet spring period (March-April).

Steppes. Continental climate with cold winters with little snow and hot, dry summers.

Broad-leaved and mixed forests. Favorable climatic conditions - enough moisture, many sunny days, a frost-free period of about or more than six months.

Taiga. There is enough moisture, but the cold period is significant. Summers are quite warm (up to 20 °C), winters are severely frosty (average temperature –30 °C).

Tundra. The soil is permafrost. The climate is subarctic.

Natural areas

Strong winds. Long cold winter, polar night in many parts. In summer the temperature is about +5 °C.

Arctic desert. The dominance of ice, the absence of plants, the animal world is quite poor. In winter, the average temperature is -30 °C and strong winds; in summer it can be slightly above 0, with frequent rain and fog. Polar night and day.

Antarctic desert. In winter up to –70 °C, in summer no higher than –20 °C (on the coast of the Antarctic Peninsula it rises to 10 °C). Strong winds blowing towards the coast and central regions Antarctica.

News and society

Natural zones of Russia and their features

Nature is a complex of interconnected components that are in constant relationship with each other and depend on each other. Changes in one natural chain will necessarily lead to disturbances in related components. There is a constant exchange of resources and energy between individual participants natural community. The presence of certain relationships is characteristic of each specific territory. This is how natural areas are formed. They, in turn, influence human economic activity and its characteristics.

The natural areas of Russia are very diverse. This is due to the vast territory, differences in relief and climatic conditions.

Among the main natural zones of our country are steppes, semi-deserts, taiga, forests, forest-steppes, tundra, arctic desert, forest-tundra. Natural areas of Russia have a fairly large area, which stretches for thousands of kilometers. Each of them is characterized by a specific climate, soil types, flora and fauna, as well as the degree of moisture in the area.

The Arctic desert zone is characterized by the presence large quantity snow and ice all year round. The air temperature here varies between 4-2 degrees. Glaciers arise from the fall of solid precipitation. The soil is poorly developed and is located on entry level. Salt stains are observed to form in dry, windy weather. The climatic conditions of this zone also affect the nature of vegetation. Low mosses and lichens predominate here. Less common are polar poppy, saxifrage and some other plants. The fauna is also not very rich. Arctic fox, deer, owl, partridge and lemming are practically the only inhabitants of the Arctic desert.

Natural zones of Russia include the tundra zone. This is a less cold zone than the Arctic deserts. But, nevertheless, it is characterized by cold and strong winds, which is due to the proximity of the Arctic Ocean. Frosts and snow are possible all year round. The climate of the tundra zone is humid. The soil is also very poorly developed, which affects the vegetation cover. Mostly low shrubs and trees, mosses and lichens predominate.

Natural zones of Russia are gradually replacing each other. Next comes the forest-tundra. It already experiences warmer weather in the summer, but the winter is cold with lots of snow. Among the plants, spruce, birch and larch predominate. During the warm period, the forest-tundra serves as a pasture for deer.

The forest-tundra is replaced by taiga. It is characterized by warmer weather and less severe winters. The relief is characterized by the presence of a large number of reservoirs (rivers, lakes and swamps). The soil here is more favorable for flora, which is why the fauna here is numerous. The taiga is home to sable, hazel grouse, wood grouse, hare, squirrel, bear and many other species.

The semi-desert zone is the smallest in area. It typically has hot summers and harsh winters with little rainfall. It is mainly used for pasture.

The division of territory into zones also affects human activities. Russia's numerous natural and economic zones also determine its extensive economic activities.

Each zone is subdivided into smaller species.

Natural areas of the world: brief description. Table "Natural areas of the world"

There are also transition zones, which are characterized by the climatic characteristics of each adjacent region. Therefore, each natural area is inextricably linked with the neighboring one. Disturbances occurring in a certain region of the country lead to changes not only in the climate, but also in the animal and plant world of another zone.

The characteristics of Russian natural zones imply the characteristics of each of them, but they do not have clear boundaries and the division is conditional. In addition, human activities can affect the nature and climate of the environment.

News and society

Nature is a complex of interconnected components that are in constant relationship with each other and depend on each other. Changes in one natural chain will necessarily lead to disturbances in related components. There is a constant exchange of resources and energy between individual participants in the natural community. The presence of certain relationships is characteristic of each specific territory. This is how natural areas are formed. They, in turn, influence human economic activity and its characteristics.

The natural areas of Russia are very diverse. This is due to the vast territory, differences in relief and climatic conditions.

The Arctic desert zone is characterized by the presence of large amounts of snow and ice all year round. The air temperature here varies between 4-2 degrees. Glaciers arise from the fall of solid precipitation. The soil is poorly developed and is at an elementary level. Salt stains are observed to form in dry, windy weather. The climatic conditions of this zone also affect the nature of vegetation. Low mosses and lichens predominate here. Less common are polar poppy, saxifrage and some other plants. The fauna is also not very rich. Arctic fox, deer, owl, partridge and lemming are practically the only inhabitants of the Arctic desert.

The semi-desert zone is the smallest in area. It typically has hot summers and harsh winters with little rainfall. It is mainly used for pasture.

The division of territory into zones also affects human activities. Russia's numerous natural and economic zones also determine its extensive economic activities.

Each zone is subdivided into smaller species. There are also transition zones, which are characterized by the climatic characteristics of each adjacent region. Therefore, each natural area is inextricably linked with the neighboring one. Disturbances occurring in a certain region of the country lead to changes not only in the climate, but also in the animal and plant world of another zone.

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Home > Wiki-textbook > Geography > 8th grade > Natural zones of Russia: arctic, tundra, forest-tundra, taiga, deserts

Arctic desert zone

This area is characterized by a lot of snow and ice at all times of the year. The average July temperatures here are 4-2 degrees. Precipitation falls in solid form, this contributes to the formation of glaciers. The soil-forming process is at the initial stage of development. There are almost no swamps or lakes in the Arctic deserts. Salt spots form on the soil surface in dry weather with the wind.

The vegetation here is irritated and spotty.

The annual growth of mosses and lichens is approximately 1-2 mm. Among the higher plants, polar poppy, chickweed, saxifrage and others are typical in this area. The fauna is small, there are scribe, lemming, reindeer, white deer. Birds: polar owl and partridge.

Tundra zone

The tundra is a cold zone with strong winds because...

located along the seas of the Arctic Ocean. Frosts and snowfall are possible in any month. The tundra is dominated by excessive humid climate due to the influence of the Atlantic. Characterized by a cold, humid arctic and subarctic climate.

Low temperatures make soil formation difficult. The soils contain little humus and have a rough mechanical composition.

Tundra is a treeless zone. Mosses and lichens grow here; low-growing plants - grasses, shrubs.

Shrubs include dwarf birch and willows, which rise slightly above the snow.

The tundra is divided into three subzones - arctic tundra, typical lichen-moss tundra, southern shrub tundra.

Forest-tundra

Unlike the tunda, the summers here are warmer. The winters are cold and quite snowy. An important feature of this zone is the presence of island sparse forests.

Natural areas of the world: brief description. Table “Natural areas of the world”

They consist of Siberian spruce, larches and Siberian birch.

The meadows provide good pasture for deer in summer and autumn. Arctic foxes are common in the forest-tundra. In winter, the only birds left here are partridges and snowy owls. For about 9 months, the tundra and forest-tundra are covered with snow.

Areas with little snow are favorable for deer.

Taiga zone

Taiga is located in two climatic zones - subarctic and temperate. The average temperature in January in the west is approximately -10...-16. The July temperature is not lower than 10 degrees in the north and not higher than 20 in the south.

There are many swamps, rivers, and lakes in the taiga zone. The taiga is rich in groundwater.

Various types of soils are developed here: podzolic, taiga permafrost, swamp-podzolic.

Larch trees are common, and pine and fir forests are rare here. Small-leaved forests are common.

Siberian taiga species of animals predominate - sable, capercaillie, hazel grouse, and others. Common species in the European taiga are elk, squirrel, capercaillie, and mountain hare. Taiga species in the European taiga are brown bear, lynx, squirrel. Many insects live.

Semi-desert and desert zone

They occupy a small area. Summer is hot, July temperature is from 22 to 25 degrees. Winter is cold, with little snow, January temperature is from -12 to -16. A large area is occupied by saline soils. In some places, the soils contain more humus and have a granular structure.

There are many rodents in semi-deserts: jerboas, gophers, gerbils.

Predators: wolf, fox, ferret. Birds: larks, lapwing. Reptiles: copperhead and arrowhead snakes, round-headed lizards.

Most of the deserts are used for grazing livestock.

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Geography

1 option

1. Physical geography studies... countries

A) nature

B) population
C) farm
D) transport
E) industry

2.Insert the missing statement: “The scale is 1cm - 150m... than 1:150000”

A) 10 times larger

B) 2 times larger
C) 100 times smaller
D) times smaller
E) 10 times smaller

3. The terms below: mistral, albedo, bora, anemometer - refer to the shell

A) biosphere

B) hydrosphere
C) atmosphere
D) lithosphere
E) neosphere

4.The continental crust has layers

B) 2
C) 3
D) 4
E) 5

5.The name of natural areas comes from

A) soil characteristics

B) climate features
C) terrain features
D) the predominant animal world
E) predominant vegetation cover

6.Natural area, the animal world of which is characterized by monkeys; tree trunks are covered with epiphytes - this is

A) equatorial forests

B) monsoon forests
C) hard-leaved forests
D) savannas and woodlands
E) coniferous forests

7.Plankton consists of:

A) Fish that move freely

B) Largest animals
C) Marine mammals
D) Animals that live at the bottom
E) Protozoa moving under the influence of currents

8.What natural zone is located at the foot of the mountains, if there are high-altitude zones there - eternal snow and glaciers, mountain tundra, taiga?

A) coniferous forests

B) monsoon forests
C) tundra
D) steppe
E) desert

9. Increases the temperature of surface waters in temperate and polar latitudes

A) Labrador

B) Californian
C) Canary
D) Kuroshio
E) North Atlantic

10. Winds dominate in the temperate zone

A) trade winds

B) stock
C) Western
D) northeastern
E) southern

11.Atlantic and Indian Oceans wash the mainland

A) Eurasia

B) Africa
C) Australia
D) Antarctica
E) South America

12.The tropical zone occupies largest area on the mainland

B) Eurasia
C) Australia
D) Antarctica
E) South America

A) West Siberian Plain

B) on the Taimyr Peninsula
C) Central Siberian Plateau
D) in northeastern Siberia
E) on the Kamchatka Peninsula

14.The highest tidal waves form in the Bay of Fundy off the coast

A) North America

B) South America
C) Eurasia
D) Africa
E) Antarctica

15. The territory of Kazakhstan is located between latitudes

A) 300 - 400 N.

B) 400 – 500 S
C) 600 – 750 N.
D) 500 – 600 S.
E) 400 - 560 N.

16. The first geological map of Kazakhstan was compiled

A) P.P. Semenov

B) Sh. Ualikhanov
C) I.V. Mushketov
D) N.A.Severtsev
E) K.I.Satpayev

17.The largest chromium deposits in Kazakhstan are being developed

A) in Altai

B) in Mugalzhary
C) in the Karatau ridge
D) on the Ustyrt plateau
E) on the Turanian plain

18. A humidification coefficient of 0.19 indicates... the territory

A) high humidity

B) humidity close to normal
C) normal hydration
D) waterlogging
E) very dry

19.Between the Alakol Basin in the north and the valley of the Ile River in the south is

B) Trans-Ili Alatau
C) Zhungar Alatau
D) Saur
E) Tarbagatai

20.On the western edge of the Western Tien Shan there is a ridge

A) Karatau

B) Ketmen
C) Ileysky Alatau
D) Shu-Ilei mountains
E) Kyrgyz Alatau

21. Natural zone in the north of Kazakhstan, gray forest and chernozem soils are

A) highlands

B) desert
C) semi-desert
D) forest-steppe
E) steppe

22.Reserve, within which the singing dune is located

A) Aksu-Zhabaglinsky

B) Nauryzym
C) Markakolsky
D) Kurgaldzhinsky
E) Almaty

23. Protected areas where human economic activity is partially permitted are called

A) nature reserves

B) reserves
C) national parks
D) natural monuments
E) dendrological parks

24.The Caspian Sea connects Kazakhstan with...

A) Armenia

B) Pakistan
C) Uzbekistan
D) Kyrgyzstan
E) Azerbaijan

25. In terms of population, among the CIS countries, Kazakhstan is inferior

A) Ukraine, Uzbekistan

B) Russia, Moldova
C) Ukraine, Moldova
D) Russia.

What are the natural areas?

Kyrgyzstan
E) Russia, Belarus

26.The increase in the share of city residents in the total population of the country is called

A) demographics

B) migration
C) mechanical movement
D) natural growth
E) urbanization

27. The production sector includes

A) public utilities

B) culture
C) education
D) agriculture
E) healthcare

28. Oil has been produced in Kazakhstan since 1899.

at the field

B) Emba
C) Dossor
D) Makat
E) Mangystau

29. Waste is used to produce nitrogen fertilizers

A) food industry

B) non-ferrous metallurgy
C) ferrous metallurgy
D) chemical industry
E) agriculture

30. Economic region of Kazakhstan, in which the industries of specialization are ferrous metallurgy and copper smelting

A) Central

B) Eastern
C) Western
D) Northern
E) Southern

31. Economic region of Kazakhstan in which all types of transport are developed

A) Central

B) Eastern
C) Western
D) Northern
E) Southern

32.The group of newly industrialized countries includes

A) China and Republic of Korea

B) Vietnam and Singapore
C) Malaysia and Libya
D) Thailand and Bangladesh
E) Malaysia and Thailand

33.The demographic crisis is typical for countries

A) Latin America

B) Western Europe
C) Australia
D) Africa
E) Asia

34.NAFTA includes countries

A) USA, Canada

B) Mexico, Venezuela
C) Argentina, Chile
D) Brazil, Mexico
E) Argentina, Uruguay

35. Pig farming is most widespread in

B) Australia
C) Asia
D) Europe
E) North America

36. Heavy-duty vehicles are produced in the cities of Belarus

A) Gomel, Lida

B) Minsk, Mozyr
C) Brest, Zhodino
D) Minsk, Zhodino
E) Soligorsk, Grodno

37. European countries located in the Alps

A) Belgium, Luxembourg

B) France, UK
C) Austria, Liechtenstein
D) Sweden, Switzerland
E) Denmark, Germany

38. Asian countries rich in forest resources

A) Saudi Arabia, Syria

B) India, Türkiye
C) Laos, Singapore
D) Indonesia, Malaysia
E) China, Pakistan

39.Industrial-agrarian country of Latin America, one of the top ten countries in the world for oil production

A) Argentina

B) Mexico
C) Colombia
D) Brazil
E) Peru

40. African countries with a monarchical form of government

A) Lesotho, Morocco

B) Swaziland, Algeria
C) Chad, Algeria
D) South Africa, Chad
E) Ethiopia, Niger

Geography

Option 2

1. The Earth comes close to the Sun:

2. The reverse direction of azimuth 255⁰ will be

3.The temperature of the lower part of the mantle reaches

4. The main driving force of the water cycle on the Earth’s surface

A) evaporation

B) condensation

C) solar energy and wind

D) pressure

E) humidity

5.Creates the necessary conditions for the development of life on Earth

A) lithosphere and stratosphere

B) atmosphere and lithosphere

C) hydrosphere and lithosphere

D) biosphere and lithosphere

E) the entire geographical envelope

6. A tree capable of storing moisture in its trunk

A) bottle

B) araucaria

D) sequoia

E) boxwood

7. The Dreyor hypothesis of continents is formulated

A) Wegener

B) Voeikov

C) Alisov

D) Herodotus

E) Baransky

8. In summer, rising air flow is typical for

A) Balkan Peninsula

B) the Hindustan Peninsula

C) Kalahari

D) Arabian Peninsula

E) Antarctica

9. Benthos makes up the flora and fauna

A) coastal parts

B) surface layers

C) the ocean floor

D) arctic latitudes

10. The subpolar geographical zone separates ... geographical zones

A) temperate and equatorial

B) equatorial and tropical

C) temperate and polar

D) temperate and tropical

E) tropical and polar

11. On the Arabian Peninsula, annual precipitation is less than ... mm

12. Japan is characterized by... climate

A) Mediterranean

B) monsoon

C) sea

D) temperate continental

E) sharply continental

13. A plant growing on the Brazilian plateau,

A) velvichia

B) Puya Raimondi

D) kebracho

14.The birthplace of rice is considered to be:

A) Latin America

B) Southern Europe

C) Central America

D) East Africa

E) Southeast Asia

15. At the mouth of the Arys River, at its confluence with the Syrdarya, there was an ancient city, from which a famous philosopher and scientist came

A) Saudakent

B) Shed

C) Koylyk

E) Otyrar

16. The first period of Sh.’s journey.

Ualikhanov included

A) the upper reaches of the Naryn River

B) Kashgaria

C) Dzhetym-Chok mountains

E) the valley of the Karasai River

18. The snow-rain type of nutrition includes the river

19. At the Zhetigarinsky deposit they produce

B) chromites

C) tungsten

E) asbestos

20. Between Saryarka and Mugalzhary there is

A) Turgai plateau

B) Trans-Ural plateau

C) General Syrt

D) Pre-Ural plateau

E) Ustyrt

21.On the left bank of the Ile (Ili) river there is a desert

A) Aral Karakum

B) Taucum

C) Kyzylkum

D) Ulken Borsyk (Big Badgers)

E) Moyynkum

22. Tersek forest is located in... reserve

A) Aksu-Zhabaglinsky

B) Korgalzhinsky

C) Markakolsk

D) Alakol

E) Nauryzym

23. A river flows out of Lake Zaisan

A) Kalzhyr

24.Compared to other industries, this industry consumes a large amount of water:

A) mechanical engineering

B) chemical industry

C) ferrous metallurgy

D) coal industry

E) petrochemical industry

25. In terms of manganese reserves, Kazakhstan ranks ... in the world

26.The construction of powerful thermal power plants gave impetus to the growth of cities

A) Zhanatas, Kentau

B) Balkhash, Alga

C) Atyrau, Uralsk

D) Ridder, Zyryanovsk

E) Aksu, Temirtau

27.Select a non-production industry from the list provided

A) trade

B) public utilities

C) telecommunications

D) construction

E) printing

28. For the first time in Kazakhstan, ferrochrome was obtained in the city

B) Aktobe

C) Shymkent

D) Ust-Kamenogorsk

E) Temirtau

29. The first oil pipeline built on the territory of Kazakhstan

A) Atyrau – Orsk

B) Uzen - Samara

C) Dossor - Rakusha

D) Mubarak – Almaty

E) Aktau-Atyrau

30. The export by an economic region or country of surplus products produced in the country or region and the import of shortage products is

A) specialization

B) concentration

C) cooperation

D) territorial division of labor

E) combination

31.The factory for primary processing of wool is located in the city

B) Ust-Kamenogorsk

C) Petropavlovsk

D) Pavlodar

E) Astana

32. Marine biomass used by humans is... represented by fish

33. Third largest country in the world

A) Canada

In Russia

E) Indonesia

34.In global exports iron ore stand out

A) China, USA

B) Brazil, Australia

C) Brazil, Argentina

D) Australia, Jamaica

E) India, Türkiye

35. Most of the world's cultivated land is occupied by:

A) technical

B) feed

C) melons

D) cereals

E) gardening

36. In Ukraine, the centers of railway engineering are

A) Kyiv, Kharkov

B) Sumy, Poltava

C) Lviv, Zaporozhye

D) Dnepropetrovsk, Lugansk

E) Nikolaev, Kerch

37.From the list presented, select the largest cities in Great Britain

A) Aberdeen and Glasgow

B) Manchester and Birmingham

C) Edinburgh and Liverpool
D) Manchester and Liverpool

E) Belfast and Glasgow

38. Multinational country:

A) Saudi Arabia

B) Japan

C) Pakistan

D) Republic of Korea

39.Mexico ranks first in the world in reserves

A) silver

40.The country that ranks first in the world in terms of bauxite reserves,

A) Brazil

B) Jamaica

C) Australia

E) Morocco

1. Indicate the main natural zones of the Earth.
Tundra, taiga, deciduous forest, meadows (savanna), deserts and shrubs, steppe and forest-steppe, tropical rainforests.

2. What determines the distribution of natural areas on Earth?
Natural areas are formed by the distribution of heat and moisture across the planet.

Relief and distance from the ocean affect the location of the plots and their width.

3. Give a brief description of the tundra.
This natural zone is located in the polar zone (mainly in the permafrost zone), where the air temperature is quite low. The flora includes mainly plants with poorly developed root systems: mosses, lichens, shrubs, and dwarf trees. The tundra is home to real, small predators and numerous migratory birds.

fourth

What trees form the basis of secret, mixed and broad-leaved forests?
Basis of thiago-conifers (pine, spruce, fir, larch...)
For mixed forests Characterized by a mixture of coniferous and broad-leaved trees.
Broad-belt forests consist of deciduous trees (oak, hazelnut, beech, linden, maple, chestnut, gabard, bar, ash, etc.).

fifths

What do all the grassy plains on our planet have in common?
It is characterized by low precipitation and constant high air temperatures. The savanna is characterized by a dry age, during which it dries out and animals turn into ponds. The vegetation is mostly herbaceous, trees are rare. Savannah is characterized by many herbivores and predators.

sixth

Give a brief description of the desert.
Deserts have very low humidity, desert flora and fauna are adapted to this difficult situation. Animals have for a long time without water, they wait in the driest months in a state of dormancy, many leading to nocturnal life.

Natural territories of Russia: map, names, geographical objects and table

Many plants can retain moisture, reduce evaporation much of the time, and have extensive root systems that allow for large amounts of moisture to be collected.

In general, flora and fauna are very limited. In plants they are mainly not herbs, animals - reptiles (snakes, lizards) and small rodents.

7. Why are there trees in the steppe, savanna and desert?
In savannas, steppes and deserts there is very little rainfall, there is simply not enough water for trees.

eighths

Why is the rainforest richest in rich communities?
There is always high temperature and humidity. These conditions are especially favorable for plants and animals. Upper layer The soil is very fertile.

9. Using examples, demonstrate that the distribution of natural areas on Earth depends on the distribution of heat and moisture.
Natural areas are determined by the distribution of heat and moisture in the world: high temperatures and low humidity are characteristic of the equatorial desert, high temperature and humidity - for equatorial and tropical forests.
Natural areas extend from west to east, with no clear boundaries between them.

For example, savannas, where the humidity is no longer sufficient for the growth of forests in the cloud, in the north and away from the equator, where most of the year was not dominated by the equatorial and tropical air mass, and the rainy season lasted less than 6 months.

10. What are the characteristics listed in the list of natural features?
A) maximum diversity of species;
Tropical rainforest.
B) dominates in herbaceous plants;
Savannah.
B) a lot of moss, leaves and trees;
Tundra.

D) a number of coniferous species of some species.
Taiga.

11. Analyze the pictures on pages 116-117 of the textbook. Is there a connection between the color of animals and their habitat (natural area)?

For example, a striped tiger successfully hides in the yellow grass, preparing to attack. The polar bear and sand are almost invisible against the background of snow.
To protect predators, animals evolved color to hide.

Examples: jerboa, deer, green frog and many others. another

12. In what natural areas do these organisms live?
Scarlet birch - tundra.
Sloth is a tropical rainforest.
Kedrovka - taiga.
Zebra - savannah.
Oak is a broad forest.
Jeyran is a desert.
White owl - tundra.

13th

Using the map on pages 118-119 of the textbook, the name of natural areas located on the territory of our country. Which of them occupy the largest territory?
Russian territory has a long stretch from north to south, the topography is mostly flat. Such large plains are successively the following natural areas Arctic desert, tundra, tundra, forest, forest, desert, semi-desert, subtropics.

There is a high zone in the mountains. A large territory occupies taiga, steppe, mixed forest and tundra.

Belts. At the current stage of development of earthly nature, the following main planetary belts are distinguished:

1) equatorial hot and humid,

2) tropical hot and dry,

3) temperate in the northern hemisphere, warm with a large amplitude of humidity across regions, in the southern - with an oceanic climate (it is advisable to divide the usually distinguished temperate zone into two: temperate and boreal);

4) boreal cool and damp;

5) polar frosty and damp.

Collections of homogeneous natural formations, stretched from west to east perpendicular to the Earth’s rotation axis, have long been called zones in science - climatic, soil, plant.

The following zones are distinguished in the northern hemisphere: ice, tundra, coniferous forests or taiga, deciduous forests, forest-steppe, steppe, temperate desert, subtropical forests, tropical desert, savanna, equatorial forests.

Between the listed zones, transitional zones are distinguished: forest-tundra between tundra and forest, semi-desert between steppe and desert, etc.

Each zone is divided into subzones.

Zones and subzones were named after the vegetation cover of the land, since vegetation is the most striking indicator or indicator of the natural complex.

1. Equatorial belt.

2. Subequatorial belts

3. Tropical zones

4. Subtropical zones

5. Northern temperate zone.

6. Southern Temperate Zone

7. Northern boreal belt

8. Northern cold subarctic, or subpolar, belt.

9. Southern boreal belt.

10. Polar belts, or zones of eternal frost

11. Altitudinal zone

1.Equatorial belt.

The geographic or landscape equatorial belt of land occupies a small area. Two main types of landscapes predominate in the Hylaia:

a) forest flooded and swampy and

b) forest unflooded.

On the periphery equatorial belt the forests are already deciduous-evergreen, transitional to subequatorial.

2. Subequatorial belts.

There are two of them: one in the northern, the other in the southern hemispheres.

The area of the subequatorial belts is larger than that of the equatorial belt, and, despite the appearance of the transitional nature of the belt, its nature is deeply original.

Many features of nature are inherited at least from the Paleogene.

There are two natural zones in the subequatorial belt:

a) subequatorial forests

b) savanna.

Subequatorial forests in the form of a narrow zone adjoin the hyla. They are variably wet and deciduous.

The zonal type of savannah landscape is characterized by a combination of grassy areas with individual trees, groups of trees, small forests or thickets of shrubs.

Depending on the duration of the dry period, the savannah zone is divided into three subzones:

1) wet savannas and savanna forests, located near the Hylea belt;

2) dry savannas with open forests or individual trees, occupying the middle areas of the belt;

3) desertified savannas and shrubs adjacent to tropical desert zones.

3.Tropical zones .

Tropical zones are latitudes where hot and usually dry air prevails on both continents and oceans, forming in tropical anticyclones.

The northern tropical zone on the continents extends from 10′ N. w. near the Gulf of Aden up to 34′ n. w. in the upper Indus basin - 24′ from north to south and 120′ from west to east. The southern one, since the continents wedge out to the south, is somewhat smaller.

Its southern border coincides everywhere with 30′ S. latitude, northern in Africa reaches 16′ S. sh.; belt width 14′, length on land 85′.

The seasons of the year in the northern and southern zones are antichronic.

4. Subtropical zones.

Subtropics are characterized by the presence of tropical air in these latitudes in summer and temperate air in winter. These are not transitional, but independent belts. The location of regions of subtropical nature, the climate and landscape features of each of them also depend on the topography of the continents - the lithogenic basis for the development of landscapes and interaction in the ocean-atmosphere-continent system.

The average parallel of subtropical zones is 35′s.

w. and Yu. W. These are the axes of the Mediterranean fracture zones of the earth's crust in both hemispheres.

5.Northern temperate zone . In the middle latitudes of the globe, the lithosphere is antisymmetric relative to the equatorial plane: the huge continents of the northern hemisphere correspond to a continuous ocean ring in the southern hemisphere.

The northern temperate zone on land stretches from Ireland to Kamchatka by 1750 and from Alaska to Newfoundland by 1000.

The southernmost point of this belt lies in China at 330N latitude. and the northernmost one is on the Scandinavian Peninsula at almost 700 N latitude, i.e. the length is almost 37 degrees.

In the southern hemisphere, only the tip of South America, half of Tasmania and part of the South Island of New Zealand reach temperate latitudes.

The northern belt is characterized by the greatest diversity of zonal landscapes on Earth.

In its northern reaches, the taiga turns into forest-tundra, and in the southern reaches, the temperate deserts of Central Asia border on subtropical deserts. The mode of heat and moisture, all components are so different that they allow us to divide this belt into two:

1) moderate

2) boreal.

The first includes zones of deserts, semi-deserts, steppe, forest-steppe and mixed forests in the continental sectors of Eurasia and North America and deciduous forests in the oceanic ones.

6. The southern temperate zone is antisymmetrical in megarelief to the northern one: it is almost entirely located on the ocean.

Its land area is negligible. Only on the western coast of the Andes, open to sea air masses of western transport and cyclones, do oceanic permanently moist forests grow.

7.Northern boreal belt. In the northern part of the middle latitudes, across the vast expanses of Eurasia and North America, stretches the most extensive zone on Earth - the zone of coniferous forests, which received the Siberian name of taiga. Its southern border at Lake Superior reaches 47′ N.

sh., and the northern one on the Kola Peninsula rises to 68′ N. w. Even further north - to the lake

There are three main landscapes in the boreal zone:

1) coniferous forests,

2) swamp and

3) water meadows.

The southern temperate and boreal zones are mainly oceanic.

8. Northern cold subarctic, or subpolar, belt.

It occupies the northern periphery of Eurasia and America. Its southern boundary follows the coastline (due to summer warming of the land) and is also influenced by warm and cold ocean currents.

There is little solar heat.

The southern boundary of the belt approximately corresponds to the 10′ isotherm, and the northern 0′C in July. Already at a shallow depth (about 30 cm) the soil is captured permafrost. There is little precipitation - from 300 to 100 mm, evaporation is even less, atmospheric humidification is excessive - up to 150%.

Tree plantations cannot grow under these conditions; tundra landscapes are typical.

Tundra is a complex of treeless moss, moss-shrub and lichen formations that have adapted to climatic and soil pessimism. In the northern reaches, soils and tundra landscapes form only in patches; This is already a polar desert.

In the tundra zone there are three types of landscapes: tundra, swamp and floodplain meadows.

9. Southern boreal belt.

In the southern hemisphere, in subpolar latitudes, the ocean reigns supreme. Tundra landscapes occur sporadically on sparsely scattered islands and do not form zones. On the Falkland Islands (51 - 52′ S) there is stony-lichen tundra with thickets of birch and willow; South Georgia (54 - 55′ S) lies on the border of the Antarctic ice zone.

10. Polar belts, or zones of eternal frost.

The northern and southern polar belts are opposite in megarelief - the first is continental, the second is oceanic. However, their climates have many common features.

There are three types of landscapes on land in the Arctic belt:

1) island glaciers,

2) polar deserts (on the Wrangel, Novosibirsk, Severnaya Zemlya and Canadian archipelago islands) and

3) arctic tundras, usually spotted on the border with the tundra zone.

11.Altitudinal zone . In mountainous countries, horizontal natural land zones are replaced by altitudinal zones, and in the hills the landscapes vary within two adjacent zones.

The vertical zone always begins with the horizontal zone in which the mountainous country is located.

Above the belt, they change generally in the same way as the horizontal zones, up to the region of polar snows. In this case, of course, belts appear that are similar to such zones, the conditions of which cannot be repeated in the mountains.

The ratio of territories falling on different horizontal geographical zones and landscapes of mountainous countries is best shown by comparing the sizes of areas of the main types of soil, since the vegetation cover has been significantly changed by human activity.

6. The Earth's lithosphere as a condition for the development of tourism.

Endogenous processes: volcanism, earthquakes, main landforms.

Lithosphere(from the Greek λίθος - stone and σφαίρα - ball, sphere) - the hard shell of the Earth.

Blocks of the lithosphere - lithospheric plates - move along a relatively plastic asthenosphere. The section of geology on plate tectonics is devoted to the study and description of these movements.

Endogenous processes(A.

endogenous processes; n. endogene Vorgange; f. processus endogenes, processus endogeniques; And. procesos endogenos) - geological processes associated with energy arising in the bowels of the Earth. Endogenous processes include tectonic movements of the earth's crust, magmatism, metamorphism, and seismic activity.

The main sources of energy for endogenous processes are heat and the redistribution of material in the interior of the Earth according to density (gravitational differentiation).

Volcanoes- geological formations on the surface of the Earth's crust or the crust of another planet, where magma comes to the surface, forming lava, volcanic gases, rocks (volcanic bombs) and pyroclastic flows.

Among the various classifications, general types of eruptions are distinguished:

Hawaiian type - emissions of liquid basaltic lava, often forming lava lakes, which should resemble scorching clouds or red-hot avalanches.

Hydroexplosive type - eruptions that occur in shallow conditions of oceans and seas are characterized by the formation of a large amount of steam that occurs when hot magma and sea water come into contact.

After eruptions, when the activity of the volcano either stops forever, or it “dormants” for thousands of years, processes associated with the cooling of the magma chamber and called post-volcanic processes persist on the volcano itself and its surroundings.

These include fumaroles, thermal baths, and geysers.

Earthquakes- tremors and vibrations of the Earth's surface caused by natural causes (mainly tectonic processes), or (sometimes) artificial processes (explosions, filling of reservoirs, collapse of underground cavities in mine workings).

Small tremors can also be caused by the rise of lava during volcanic eruptions.

About a million earthquakes occur throughout the Earth each year, but most are so small that they go unnoticed. Really strong earthquakes, capable of causing widespread destruction, occur on the planet about once every two weeks. Most of them fall on the bottom of the oceans, and therefore are not accompanied by catastrophic consequences (if an earthquake under the ocean does not occur without a tsunami).

Relief consists of repeatedly repeating and alternating individual relief forms, each of which consists of relief elements: faces or surfaces, and edges (the intersection of two faces).

Based on the magnitude of the slope, they distinguish subhorizontal surfaces(with tilt angles up to 2 degrees) and slopes(with tilt angles greater than 2 degrees). Surfaces can be smooth, concave, convex.

The edges of the relief gradually transform into one another through slope bends.

Landforms can be positive(protruding relative to some horizontal level) or negative(in depth relative to this level).

Also distinguished accumulative landforms, formed due to the accumulation of material, and denudation forms formed due to the removal of material.

Morphometric classification of relief.

Depending on the size there are: planetary forms, megaforms, macroforms, mesoforms, microforms and nanoforms of relief.

Planetary landforms. They occupy areas of hundreds of thousands and millions of km2. The total number of planetary landforms is small. They are divided into: continents, ocean floor, transition zones, mid-ocean ridges.

Mega landforms occupy areas of the order of hundreds or tens of thousands of km2.

These are large depressions and mountain systems.

Macroforms are components of megaforms. The areas occupied by these forms amount to hundreds, less often thousands, of km2. Macroforms include individual ridges in a mountain system.

Mesoforms usually several tens of km2.

These can be river valleys, large ravines, ravines, small mountain ranges.

Microforms represent irregularities that complicate the surface of mesoforms.

These are, for example, karst sinkholes, erosion potholes, and coastal ramparts.

Nanorelief forms are called very small irregularities that complicate the surfaces of macro, meso and micro relief.

These are meadow hummocks, marmots, molehills, small erosion grooves, ripple marks on the bottom of reservoirs or on the surface of aeolian forms.

Despite the wide variety of unevenness of the earth's surface, we can distinguish main landforms: mountain, basin, ridge, hollow, saddle.

A mountain (or hill) is a cone-shaped hill.

Natural areas of Russia

It has a characteristic point - the top, side slopes (or slopes) and a characteristic line - the line of the sole. The sole line is the line where the side slopes merge with the surrounding terrain. On the slopes of the mountain there are sometimes horizontal areas called ledges.

The top is highest point height.

A basin is a cone-shaped depression.

The basin has a characteristic point - the bottom, side slopes (or slopes) and a characteristic line - the edge line. The edge line is the line where the side slopes merge with the surrounding area.

A ridge is an elongated hill that gradually decreases in one direction.

It has characteristic lines: one watershed line formed by the side slopes when they merge at the top, and two lines of the sole.

A hollow is an elongated and gradually descending depression open at one end. The hollow has characteristic lines: one drainage line (or thalweg line), formed by the side slopes when they merge at the bottom, and two edge lines.

A saddle is a small depression between two neighboring mountains; as a rule, a saddle is the beginning of two valleys descending in opposite directions.

The saddle has one characteristic point - the saddle point, located at the lowest point of the saddle.

There are varieties of the listed basic forms, for example, varieties of a hollow: valley, ravine, canyon, hole, beam, etc. Sometimes varieties of basic forms characterize the relief features of a particular area, for example, in the mountains there are peaks - pointed mountain peaks, gorges, gorges , cheeks, plateau, pass, etc.

The top of the mountain, the bottom of the basin, and the saddle point are characteristic points of the relief; the watershed line of a ridge, the drainage line of a ravine, the line of the base of a mountain or ridge, the edge line of a basin or ravine are characteristic lines of the relief.

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Report: The concept of natural areas and geographical landscapes. Zoning and azonality

Natural areas of the globe, their a brief description of

The great Russian scientist V.V. At the end of the last century, Dokuchaev substantiated the planetary law of geographic zoning - a natural change in the components of nature and natural complexes when moving from the equator to the poles. Zoning is primarily due to the unequal (latitudinal) distribution of solar energy (radiation) over the Earth's surface, associated with the spherical shape of our planet, as well as different amounts of precipitation.

Natural areas and their main characteristics. Natural areas and their main features

Depending on the latitudinal ratio of heat and moisture, the law of geographic zonation is subject to weathering processes and exogenous relief-forming processes; zonal climate, surface waters of land and ocean, soil cover, vegetation and fauna.

The largest zonal divisions of the geographic envelope are geographic zones.

They stretch, as a rule, in the latitudinal direction and, in essence, coincide with climatic zones. Geographical zones differ from each other in temperature characteristics, as well as common features atmospheric circulation.

On land the following geographical zones are distinguished:

Equatorial - common to the northern and southern hemispheres; - subequatorial, tropical, subtropical and temperate - in each hemisphere; - subantarctic and antarctic zones - in the southern hemisphere.

Belts with similar names have been identified in the World Ocean. The zonality in the ocean is reflected in changes from the equator to the poles in the properties of surface waters (temperature, salinity, transparency, wave intensity, etc.), as well as in changes in the composition of flora and fauna.

Within geographic zones, natural zones are distinguished based on the ratio of heat and moisture.

The names of the zones are given according to the type of vegetation that predominates in them. For example, in the subarctic zone these are tundra and forest-tundra zones; in the temperate zone - forest zones (taiga, mixed coniferous-deciduous and broad-leaved forests), zones of forest-steppes and steppes, semi-deserts and deserts.

Natural area(Greek

zone - belt), physiographic zone- part of a geographical zone with homogeneous climatic conditions.

Geographical zone- the largest zonal division of the geographical envelope encircling the globe in the latitudinal direction.

Geographic zones correspond to climate zones. Each geographical zone is characterized by the integrity of climatic conditions.

The globe is divided into the following geographical zones and zones:

Northern polar zone - north of the Arctic Circle
arctic belt
Northern Temperate Zone - between the Arctic Circle and the Tropic of Cancer
southern temperate zone
Hot zone - between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn
southern tropical zone
equatorial belt
northern tropical zone
South Temperate Zone - between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle
northern temperate zone
South Polar Zone - south of the Antarctic Circle
Antarctic belt

The following belts are also distinguished at the borders:

two subequatorial (northern and southern)
two subtropical (northern and southern)
subarctic
subantarctic

In the Hot Zone, the sun is at its zenith at least once a year - at the borders of the tropics this occurs during the summer solstice, and at the equator during the equinoxes.

It is the hottest part of the earth and has two annual seasons: dry and wet. The hot zone includes most of Africa, southern India, southern Asia, Indonesia, New Guinea, northern Australia, Central America and northern South America.

In the two Temperate Zones the sun is never directly at its zenith and the climate is temperate (mild), slowly changing from warm to cold. These zones have four seasons - spring, summer, autumn and winter.

The North Temperate Zone includes Great Britain, Europe, northern Asia and North America. The South Temperate Zone includes southern Australia, New Zealand, southern South America and South Africa.

In the two Polar zones there is such a phenomenon as a polar day and a polar night - at the borders of the zones during the solstice the sun does not rise for 24 hours, while at the poles the day “lasts one year” - six months of sunlight and six months of night.

The polar zones are the coldest parts of the earth, covered with ice and snow. The North Polar Zone (Arctic) includes northern Canada and Alaska, Greenland, northern Scandinavia, northern Russia and Arctic ice. The South Polar Zone (Antarctica) consists of the continent of Antarctica; the other closest continents are the southern cape of Chile and Argentina, as well as New Zealand.

Natural areas take their name from their native vegetation and other geographic features.

The zones naturally change from the equator to the poles and from the oceans deep into the continents; have similar temperature and moisture conditions that determine homogeneous soils, vegetation, fauna and other components of the natural environment. Natural zones are one of the stages of physical-geographical zoning.

Natural zones are expressed on land and in the ocean, where they appear less clearly. Within the zone, according to the predominance of landscapes of one type or another, physiographic subzones are distinguished.

The warmth of the sun, clean air and water are the main criteria for life on Earth. Numerous climatic zones have led to the division of the territory of all continents and waters into certain natural zones. Some of them, even separated by huge distances, are very similar, others are unique.

Natural areas of the world: what are they?

This definition should be understood as very large natural complexes (in other words, parts of the Earth’s geographic zone), which have similar, homogeneous climatic conditions. The main characteristic of natural areas is the flora and fauna that inhabit the given territory. They are formed as a result of the uneven distribution of moisture and heat on the planet.

Table “Natural areas of the world”

Natural area	Climate zone	Average temperature (winter/summer)
Antarctic and Arctic deserts	Antarctic, Arctic	24-70°C /0-32°C
Tundra and forest-tundra	Subarctic and subantarctic	8-40°С/+8+16°С
	Moderate	8-48°С /+8+24°С
Mixed forests	Moderate	16-8°С /+16+24°С
Broadleaf forests	Moderate	8+8°С /+16+24°С
Steppes and forest-steppes	Subtropical and temperate	16+8 °С /+16+24°С
Temperate deserts and semi-deserts	Moderate	8-24 °С /+20+24 °С
Hardleaf forests	Subtropical	8+16 °С/ +20+24 °С
Tropical deserts and semi-deserts	Tropical	8+16 °С/ +20+32 °С
Savannas and woodlands		20+24°С and above
Variably humid forests	Subequatorial, tropical	20+24°С and above
Permanently wet forests	Equatorial	above +24°С

This characteristic of the natural zones of the world is only for informational purposes, because you can talk about each of them for a very long time, and all the information will not fit into the framework of one table.

Natural zones of the temperate climate zone

1. Taiga. It surpasses all other natural zones of the world in terms of land area (27% of the territory of all forests on the planet). It is characterized by very low winter temperatures. Deciduous trees cannot withstand them, so the taiga is dense coniferous forests (mainly pine, spruce, fir, larch). Very large areas of the taiga in Canada and Russia are occupied by permafrost.

2. Mixed forests. Characteristic to a greater extent for the Northern Hemisphere of the Earth. It is a kind of border between taiga and deciduous forest. They are more resistant to cold and long winters. Tree species: oak, maple, poplar, linden, as well as rowan, alder, birch, pine, spruce. As the table “Natural Zones of the World” shows, the soils in the mixed forest zone are gray and not highly fertile, but are still suitable for growing plants.

3. Broad-leaved forests. They are not adapted to harsh winters and are deciduous. They occupy most of Western Europe, the south of the Far East, northern China and Japan. Suitable for them is a maritime or temperate continental climate with hot summers and sufficient warm winter. As the table “Natural zones of the world” shows, the temperature in them does not fall below -8°C even in the cold season. The soil is fertile, rich in humus. The following types of trees are typical: ash, chestnut, oak, hornbeam, beech, maple, elm. The forests are very rich in mammals (ungulates, rodents, predators), birds, including game birds.

4. Temperate deserts and semi-deserts. Their main distinguishing feature is the almost complete absence of vegetation and sparse fauna. There are quite a lot of natural areas of this nature; they are located mainly in the tropics. There are temperate deserts in Eurasia, and they are characterized by sharp changes in temperature across the seasons. Animals are represented mainly by reptiles.

Arctic deserts and semi-deserts

They are huge areas of land covered with snow and ice. A map of the world’s natural zones clearly shows that they are located in North America, Antarctica, Greenland and the northern tip of the Eurasian continent. In fact, these are lifeless places, and only along the coast are polar bears, walruses and seals, arctic foxes and lemmings, and penguins (in Antarctica). Where the ground is free of ice, lichens and mosses can be seen.

Equatorial rainforests

Their second name is rain forests. They are located mainly in South America, as well as in Africa, Australia and the Greater Sunda Islands. The main condition for their formation is constant and very high humidity (more than 2000 mm of precipitation per year) and a hot climate (20°C and above). They are very rich in vegetation, the forest consists of several tiers and is an impenetrable, dense jungle, which has become home to more than 2/3 of all types of creatures now living on our planet. These rain forests are superior to all other natural areas in the world. The trees remain evergreen, changing foliage gradually and partially. Surprisingly, the soils of humid forests contain little humus.

Natural zones of the equatorial and subtropical climate zone

1. Variably humid forests, they differ from rain forests in that precipitation falls there only during the rainy season, and during the period of drought that follows, the trees are forced to shed their leaves. The flora and fauna are also very diverse and rich in species.

2. Savannas and woodlands. They appear where moisture, as a rule, is no longer enough for growth variable-humid forests. Their development occurs in the interior of the continent, where tropical and equatorial climates predominate. air masses, and the rainy season lasts less than six months. They occupy a significant part of the territory of subequatorial Africa, the interior of South America, partly Hindustan and Australia. More detailed information about the location is reflected in the map of natural areas of the world (photo).

Hardleaf forests

This climate zone is considered the most suitable for human habitation. Hard-leaved and evergreen forests are located along sea and ocean coasts. Precipitation is not so abundant, but the leaves retain moisture due to their dense leathery shell (oaks, eucalyptus), which prevents them from falling. In some trees and plants they are modernized into spines.

Steppes and forest-steppes

They are characterized by an almost complete absence of woody vegetation, due to the poor level of precipitation. But the soils are the most fertile (chernozems), and therefore are actively used by humans for farming. The steppes occupy large areas in North America and Eurasia. The predominant number of inhabitants are reptiles, rodents and birds. Plants have adapted to the lack of moisture and most often manage to complete their life cycle in a short spring period, when the steppe is covered with a thick carpet of greenery.

Tundra and forest-tundra

In this zone the breath of the Arctic and Antarctic begins to be felt, the climate becomes more severe, and even coniferous trees cannot withstand it. There is an abundance of moisture, but there is no heat, which leads to swamping of very large areas. There are no trees at all in the tundra; the flora is mainly represented by mosses and lichens. It is considered to be the most unstable and fragile ecosystem. Due to the active development of gas and oil fields, it is on the verge of an environmental disaster.

All natural areas of the world are very interesting, be it a desert that seems at first glance absolutely lifeless, endless Arctic ice or thousand-year-old rain forests with boiling life inside.

Natural area - a territory with similar conditions of temperature and moisture, which determine generally homogeneous soils, vegetation and fauna. On the plains, the zones extend in the latitudinal direction, naturally replacing each other from the poles to the equator. Often, significant distortions in the pattern of the zone are introduced by the relief and the relationship between land and sea.

Arctic and Antarctic deserts . These are cold deserts with very low air temperatures in the Arctic and Antarctica. In this area, snow and ice persist almost all year round. In the warmest month - August - in the Arctic the air temperature is close to 0°C. Ice-free areas are bound by permafrost. Very intense frost weathering. There is little precipitation - from 100 to 400 mm per year in the form of snow. In this zone, the polar night lasts up to 150 days. Summer is short and cold. Only 20 days, rarely 50 days a year, the air temperature exceeds 0°C. The soils are thin, underdeveloped, rocky, and there are widespread scatterings of coarsely broken material. Less than half of the Arctic and Antarctic deserts are covered with sparse vegetation. It is devoid of trees and bushes. Crucible lichens, mosses, various algae, and only some flowering plants are common here. The animal world is richer than the plant world. These are polar bears, arctic foxes, polar owls, deer, seals, and walruses. Among the birds, there are penguins, eiders and many other birds that nest on rocky shores and form “bird colonies” in the summer. In the ice desert zone, marine animals are hunted; among birds, eiders are of particular interest, with their nests lined with down. Eider down is collected from abandoned nests to produce clothing worn by polar sailors and pilots. In the icy desert of Antarctica there are Antarctic oases. These are areas of the continental coastal strip free from ice cover, with an area of several tens to hundreds of square meters. kilometers. The organic world of oases is very poor; there are lakes.

Tundra. This is an area that lies within parts of the Arctic and subarctic zones in the Northern Hemisphere; in the Southern Hemisphere, the tundra is distributed only on some islands. This is an area with a predominance of moss-lichen vegetation, as well as low-growing perennial grasses, shrubs and low bushes. The trunks of shrubs and the roots of grasses are hidden in the moss and lichen turf.

The climate of the tundra is harsh, the average July temperature only in the south of the natural zone does not exceed +11°C, snow cover lasts 7-9 months. Precipitation amounts to 200-400 mm, and in some places up to 750 mm. The main reason for the treelessness of the tundra is low air temperatures combined with high relative humidity, strong winds, widespread permafrost. The tundra also creates unfavorable conditions for the germination of seeds of woody plants on the moss-lichen cover. Plants in the tundra are pressed to the surface of the soil, forming densely intertwined shoots in the form of a pillow. In July, the tundra is covered with a carpet of flowering plants. Due to excess moisture and permafrost, there are many swamps in the tundra. On the warmed banks of rivers and lakes you can find poppies, dandelions, polar forget-me-nots, and pink myrtle flowers. Based on the predominant vegetation in the tundra, 3 zones are distinguished: arctic tundra , characterized by sparse vegetation due to the severity of the climate (in July +6°C); moss-lichen tundra , characterized by richer vegetation (in addition to mosses and lichens, sedge, bluegrass, and creeping willow are found here), and shrub tundra , located in the south of the tundra zone and characterized by richer vegetation, which consists of thickets of willow and alder bushes, which in some places rise to the height of a person. In areas of this subzone, shrubs are an important source of fuel. The soil of the tundra zone is predominantly tundra-gley, characterized by gleying (see “Soils”). She is infertile. Frozen soils with a thin active layer are widespread. The fauna of the tundra is represented by reindeer, lemmings, arctic foxes, ptarmigan, and in summer - many migratory birds. Shrub tundra gradually turns into forest-tundra.

Forest-tundra . This is a transition zone between the tundra and the temperate forest zone. It is distributed in the Northern Hemisphere in North America and Eurasia. The climate is less severe than in the tundra: the average July temperature here is +10-14°C. The annual precipitation is 300-400 mm. There is more precipitation in the forest-tundra than evaporates, so the forest-tundra is characterized by excessive moisture; it is one of the most swampy natural zones. Snow cover lasts for more than six months. Floods on the rivers of the forest-tundra usually occur in the summer, since the rivers of this zone are fed by melt water, and the snow melts in the forest-tundra in the summer. Woody vegetation that appears in this zone grows along river valleys, since rivers have a warming effect on the climate of this zone. The forest islands consist of birch, spruce, and larch. The trees are stunted and in some places bent to the ground. The area of forests increases in the forest-tundra as you move along it to the south. In the interfluves there are low-growing and sparse forests. Thus, the forest-tundra consists of an alternation of treeless shrub areas and open forests. Tundra (peat-swamp) or forest soils. The fauna of the forest-tundra is similar to the fauna of the tundra. It is also home to Arctic foxes, ptarmigan, snowy owls and a wide variety of migratory waterfowl. The forest-tundra contains the main winter pastures for reindeer and hunting grounds.

Temperate forests . This natural zone is located in a temperate climate zone and includes subzones taiga, mixed and deciduous forests, monsoon forests temperate zone. Differences in climatic features contribute to the formation of vegetation characteristic of each subzone.

Taiga (Turk.). This zone of coniferous forests is located in northern North America and northern Eurasia. The climate of the subzone ranges from maritime to sharply continental with relatively warm summers (from 10°C to 20°C), and the lower the winter temperatures, the more continental the climate is (from -10°C in northern Europe to -50°C in northeastern Europe). Siberia). Permafrost is widespread in many areas of Siberia. The subzone is characterized by excessive moisture and, as a consequence, swampy interfluve spaces. There are two types of taiga: light coniferous And thoseconiferous. Light coniferous taiga - These are the least demanding pine and larch forests in terms of soil and climatic conditions, the sparse crown of which allows the sun's rays to reach the ground. Pines, having an extensive root system, have acquired the ability to use nutrients from infertile soils, which is used to stabilize soils. This feature allows these plants to grow in areas with permafrost. The shrub layer of the light-coniferous taiga consists of alder, dwarf birches, polar birches, polar willows, and berry bushes. This type of taiga is common in Eastern Siberia. Dark coniferous taiga - These are conifers, consisting of numerous species of spruce, fir, and cedar. This taiga, unlike the light-coniferous taiga, has no undergrowth, since its trees are tightly closed, and it is quite gloomy in these forests. The lower tier consists of shrubs (lingonberries, blueberries, blueberries) and dense ferns. This type of taiga is common in the European part of Russia and Western Siberia.

The soils of the taiga zone are podzolic. They contain little humus, but when fertilized they can provide a high yield. In the taiga of the Far East there are acidic soils.

The fauna of the taiga zone is rich. There are numerous predators here that are valuable game animals: otter, marten, sable, mink, weasel. Large ones include wolves, bears, lynxes, and wolverines. In North America, bison and wapiti deer used to be found in the taiga zone. Now they live only in nature reserves. The taiga is also rich in rodents, the most typical of which are beavers, muskrats, squirrels, hares, and chipmunks. The world of birds is very diverse.

Temperate mixed forests . These are forests with different tree species: coniferous-broad-leaved, small-leaved and pine. This zone is located in the north of North America (on the border of the USA and Canada), and in Eurasia it forms a narrow strip between the taiga and the zone of broad-leaved forests. The mixed forest zone is also found in Kamchatka and the Far East. In the Southern Hemisphere, this forest zone occupies small areas in southern South America and New Zealand.

The climate of the mixed forest zone is maritime or transitional to continental (towards the center of the continent), summers are warm, winters are moderately cold (in a maritime climate with positive temperatures, and in a more continental climate up to -10 ° C). There is sufficient moisture here. The annual amplitude of temperature fluctuations, as well as the annual amount of precipitation, vary from oceanic regions to the center of the continent.

The diversity of vegetation in the mixed forest zone of the European part of Russia and the Far East is explained by differences in climate. For example, on the Russian Plain, where precipitation falls all year round thanks to the westerly winds coming from the Atlantic, European spruce, oak, elm, fir, and beech are common - coniferous-deciduous forests.

The soils in the mixed forest zone are gray forest and soddy-podzolic, while in the Far East they are brown forest.

The fauna is similar to the fauna of the taiga and the deciduous forest zone. Elk, sable, and bear live here.

Mixed forests have long been subject to severe deforestation and loss. They are best preserved in North America and the Far East, and in Europe they are cut down for agricultural land - field and pasture lands.

Temperate broadleaf forests . They occupy the east of North America, Central Europe, and also form an altitudinal zone in the Carpathians, Crimea and the Caucasus. In addition, isolated pockets of broad-leaved forests are found in the Russian Far East, Chile, New Zealand and central Japan.

The climate is favorable for the growth of deciduous trees with a wide leaf blade. Here, moderate continental air masses bring precipitation from the oceans (from 400 to 600 mm) mainly in the warm season. The average temperature in January is -8°-0°C, and in July +20-24°C.

Beech, hornbeam, elm, maple, linden, and ash grow in the forests. In the deciduous forest zone of North America, species are found that are not found on other continents. These are American oak species. The predominant species here are trees with a powerful spreading crown, often entwined with climbing plants: grapes or ivy. To the south there are magnolias. For European broad-leaved forests, oak and beech are the most typical.

The fauna of this natural zone is close to the taiga, but there are animals such as black bears, wolves, minks, raccoons, which are not typical for the taiga. Many animals of the broad-leaved forests of Eurasia are under protection, as the number of individuals is sharply declining. These include animals such as bison and Ussuri tiger.

The soils under broad-leaved forests are gray forest or brown forest. This zone has been heavily developed by humans, forests have been cleared over large areas, and the lands have been plowed. In its true form, the zone of broad-leaved forests has been preserved only in areas inconvenient for arable farming and in nature reserves.

Forest-steppe . This natural zone is located within the temperate climate zone and represents a transition from forest to steppe, with alternating forest and steppe landscapes. It is widespread in the Northern Hemisphere: in Eurasia from the Danube Lowland to Altai, further in Mongolia and the Far East; in North America, this zone is located in the northern Great Plains and western Central Plains.

Forest-steppes are naturally distributed within continents between forest zones, which here choose the most humidified areas, and the steppe zone.

The climate of the forest-steppes is moderate continental: winters are snowy and cold (from -5°C to -20°C), summers are warm (+18°C to +25°C). In different longitudinal zones, forest-steppe varies in precipitation (from 400 mm to 1000 mm). Humidification is slightly below sufficient, evaporation is very high.

In the forests that alternate steppes, broad-leaved (oak) and small-leaved tree species (birch) are more common, and conifers are less common. The soils of the forest-steppe are mainly gray forest soils, which alternate with chernozems. The nature of the forest-steppe zone has been greatly changed by human economic activity. In Europe and North America, the plowed area reaches 80%. Since this zone has fertile soils, wheat, corn, sunflowers, sugar beets and other crops. The fauna of the forest-steppe zone includes species characteristic of the forest and steppe zones.

The West Siberian forest-steppe with numerous birch groves-kolok (singular number - kolok) is specific. Sometimes they have an admixture of aspen. The area of individual pegs reaches 20-30 hectares. Numerous forests, alternating with areas of steppes, create the characteristic landscape of Southwestern Siberia.

Steppes . This is a landscape with a herbaceous vegetation type, located in the temperate and partly subtropical zone. In Eurasia, the steppe zone extends in a latitudinal direction from the Black Sea to Transbaikalia; in North America, the Cordillera distributes air flows in such a way that the zone of insufficient moisture and with it the steppe zone are located from north to south along the eastern edge of this mountainous country. In the Southern Hemisphere, the steppe zone is located within the subtropical climate of Australia and Argentina. Atmospheric precipitation (from 250 mm to 450 mm per year) falls here irregularly and is insufficient for the growth of trees. Winter is cold, average temperature below 0°C, in some places down to -30°, with little snow. Summer is moderately hot - +20°С, +24°С, drought is common. Inland waters in the steppe are poorly developed, river flow is small, and rivers often dry up.

The undisturbed vegetation of the steppe is a thick grass cover, but undisturbed steppes throughout the world remain only in nature reserves: all steppes are plowed. Depending on the nature of vegetation in the steppe zone, three subzones are distinguished. They differ from each other in the predominant vegetation. This meadow steppes (bluegrass, bonfire, timothy), cereals and southern wormwood-cereals .

The soils of the steppe zone - chernozems - have a significant humus horizon, due to which they are very fertile. This is one of the reasons for the highly plowed area.

The fauna of the steppes is rich and diverse, but it has changed greatly under the influence of humans. Back in the 19th century, wild horses, aurochs, bison, and roe deer disappeared. Deer are pushed into forests, saigas - into virgin steppes and semi-deserts. Now the main representatives of the animal world of the steppes are rodents. These are gophers, jerboas, hamsters, voles. Bustards, little bustards, larks and others are occasionally seen.

The steppes and partly forest-steppes of the temperate and subtropical zones of North America are called prairies . Currently they are almost completely plowed. Part of the American prairies is dry steppes and semi-deserts.

The subtropical steppe on the plains of South America, located mainly in Argentina and Uruguay, is called pump . IN eastern regions, where precipitation falls from the Atlantic Ocean, there is sufficient moisture, and to the west the aridity increases. Most of the pampa territory is plowed, but in the west there are still dry steppes with thorny bushes, used as pastures for livestock.

Semi-deserts and temperate deserts . In the south, the steppes turn into semi-deserts, and then into deserts. Semi-deserts and deserts are formed in dry climates, where there is a long and hot warm period (+20-25°C, sometimes up to 50°C), strong evaporation, which is 5-7 times the amount of annual precipitation (up to 300 mm in year). Weak surface runoff, poor development of inland waters, many dry riverbeds, vegetation is not closed, sandy soils heat up during the day, but quickly cool down during the cool night, which contributes to physical weathering. The winds dry out the land very strongly here. Temperate deserts differ from deserts of other geographical zones in colder winters (-7°C-15°C). Deserts and semi-deserts of the temperate zone are widespread in Eurasia from the Caspian lowland to the northern bend of the Yellow River, and in North America - in the foothills and basins of the Cordillera. In the Southern Hemisphere, temperate deserts and semi-deserts are found only in Argentina, where they occur in broken areas in the interior and foothills. Among the plants found here are steppe feather grass, fescue, wormwood and solyanka, camel thorn, agave, and aloe. Animals include saigas, turtles, and many reptiles. The soils here are light chestnut and brown desert, often saline. Under conditions of sharp temperature fluctuations during the day with little moisture, a dark crust forms on the surface of deserts - a desert tan. It is sometimes called protective, as it protects rocks from rapid weathering and destruction.

The main use of semi-deserts is grazing livestock (camels, fine-wool sheep). Farming of drought-resistant crops is possible only in oases. Oasis (from the Greek name for several populated places in the Libyan Desert) is a place where tree, shrub and herbaceous vegetation grows in deserts and semi-deserts, in conditions of more abundant surface and ground moisture compared to neighboring areas and areas. The sizes of oases vary: from ten to tens of thousands of kilometers. Oases are centers of population concentration, areas of intensive agriculture on irrigated lands (Nile Valley, Fergana Valley in Central Asia).

Deserts and semi-deserts of the subtropical and tropical zones . These are natural zones located in both hemispheres, on all continents along tropical zones of high atmospheric pressure. Most often, semi-deserts of the subtropical zone are located in the transitional part from deserts to mountain steppes in the form of an altitudinal zone in the inland parts of the Cordillera and Andes of America, in western Asia, Australia and especially widely in Africa. The climate of these deserts and semi-deserts climatic zones hot: the average temperature in summer rises to +35°C, and in the coldest months of winter it does not fall below +10°C. Precipitation is 50-200 mm, in semi-deserts up to 300 mm. Sometimes precipitation occurs in short bursts of rain, and in some areas there may be no precipitation for several years in a row. With a lack of moisture, the weathering crust is very thin.

Groundwater lies very deep and can be partially saline. Only plants that can tolerate overheating and dehydration can live in such conditions. They have a deeply branched root system and small leaves or spines that reduce evaporation from the leaf surface. Some plants have leaves that are pubescent or covered with a waxy coating, which protects them from sunlight. In the semi-deserts of the subtropical zone, cereals are common and cacti appear. In the tropical zone, the number of cacti increases, agaves and sand acacias grow, and various lichens are common on the stones. A characteristic plant for the Namib Desert, located in the tropical zone of South Africa, is the amazing Welwigia plant, which has a short trunk, from the top of which two leathery leaves extend. Welwigia can be up to 150 years old. The soils are gray soils, gravelly, gray-brown, they are not very fertile, since the layer of humus is thin. The fauna of deserts and semi-deserts is rich in reptiles, spiders, and scorpions. There are camels, antelopes, and rodents are quite widespread. Agriculture in semi-deserts and deserts of the subtropical and tropical zones is also possible only in oases.

Hardleaf forests . This natural zone is located within the subtropical zone of the Mediterranean type. They mainly grow in southern Europe, northern Africa, southwest and southeast Australia. Some fragments of these forests are found in California, Chile (south of the Atacama Desert). Hard-leaved forests grow in a mild, moderately warm climate with hot (+25°C) and dry summers and cool and rainy winters. The average precipitation is 400-600 mm per year with rare and short-lived snow cover. The rivers are mainly fed by rain, and floods occur in the winter months. In rainy winter conditions, grasses grow rapidly.

The fauna has been severely exterminated, but herbivorous and leaf-eating forms, many birds of prey and reptiles are characteristic. In the forests of Australia you can find the koala bear, which lives in trees and leads a nocturnal, sedentary lifestyle.

The territory of hard-leaved forests is well developed and has been significantly changed by human economic activity. Large areas of forest here have been cut down, and their place has been taken by oilseed plantations, orchards and pastures. Many tree species have hard wood, which is used as a building material, and oils, paints, and medicines are made from the leaves (eucalyptus). Large harvests of olives, citrus fruits, and grapes are harvested from the plantations of this zone.

Subtropical monsoon forests . This natural zone is located in the eastern parts of the continents (China, southeastern USA, eastern Australia, southern Brazil). It is located in conditions that are the most humid compared to other zones of the subtropical zone. The climate is characterized by dry winters and wet summers. Annual precipitation is greater than evaporation. The maximum amount of precipitation falls in summer due to the influence of monsoons, bringing moisture from the ocean. In the territory of monsoon forests, inland waters are quite rich, and fresh groundwater lies shallow.

Here, on red soils and yellow soils, tall mixed forests grow, among which there are evergreen and deciduous forests that shed their leaves during the dry season. The species composition of plants may vary depending on soil and ground conditions. The forests contain subtropical species of pines, magnolias, camphor laurel, and camellias. Swamp cypress forests are common on the flooded coasts of Florida in the United States and in the Mississippian lowlands.

The monsoon forest zone of the subtropical zone has been developed by man for a very long time. In place of cleared forests, there are field and pasture lands; rice, tea, citrus fruits, wheat, corn and industrial crops are grown here.

Forests of tropical and subequatorial zones . They are located along eastern Central America, the Caribbean islands, Madagascar, southeast Asia, and northeast Australia. There are clearly two seasons here: dry and wet. The existence of forests in the dry and hot tropical zone is possible only thanks to the precipitation that the monsoons bring from the oceans in summer. In the subequatorial belt, precipitation occurs in the summer, when equatorial air masses dominate here. Depending on the degree of moisture, forests of the tropical and subequatorial zones are distinguished permanently wet and seasonally wet(or variable-humid) forests. Seasonally wet forests are characterized by a relatively poor species composition of tree species, especially in Australia, where these forests consist of eucalyptus, ficus, and laurels. Often in seasonally wet forests there are areas where teak and sal grow. There are very few palm trees in the forests of this group. In terms of their species diversity of flora and fauna, permanently humid forests are close to equatorial forests. There are many palm trees, evergreen oaks, and tree ferns. There are many lianas and epiphytes of orchids and ferns. The soils located under forests are mainly lateritic. During the dry season (winter), most deciduous trees do not shed all their leaves, but some species remain completely bare.

Savannah . This natural zone is located mainly within the subequatorial climate, although it is also found within the tropical and subtropical zones. In the climate of this zone, the change in wet and dry seasons of the year is clearly expressed at consistently high temperatures (from + 15 ° C to + 32 ° C). As you move away from the equator, the period of the wet season decreases from 8-9 months to 2-3, and precipitation decreases from 2000 to 250 mm per year.

Savannas are characterized by a predominance of herbaceous cover, among which tall (up to 5 m) grasses dominate. Shrubs and single trees rarely grow among them. The grass cover near the borders with the equatorial belt is very thick and high, and near the borders with semi-deserts it is sparse. A similar pattern can be seen in trees: their frequency increases towards the equator. Among the savannah trees you can find a variety of palm trees, umbrella acacias, tree-like cacti, eucalyptus trees, and baobab trees that store water.

Savannah soils depend on the length of the rainy season. Closer to the equatorial forests, where the rainy season lasts up to 9 months, are red ferralite soils. Closer to the border of savannas and semi-deserts there are red-brown soils, and even closer to the border, where rain falls for 2-3 months, unproductive soils with a thin layer of humus are formed.

The fauna of savannas is very rich and diverse, as the high grass cover provides food for the animals. Elephants, giraffes, hippos, and zebras live here, which in turn attract lions, hyenas and other predators. The bird world of this zone is also rich. Sunbirds live here, ostriches - the largest birds on Earth, a secretary bird that hunts small animals and reptiles. There are a lot of termites in the savannah.

Savannas are widespread in Africa, where they occupy 40% of the continent's territory, in South America, Australia and India.

Tall grass savannas in South America, on the left bank of the Orinoco River, with a dense, mainly cereal grass cover, with individual specimens or groups of trees, are called llanos (from the Spanish plural of “plains”). The savannas of the Brazilian plateau, where the area of intensive livestock farming is located, are called campos .

Today, savannas play a very important role in human economic life. Significant areas of this zone are plowed, grains, cotton, peanuts, jute, and sugar cane are grown here. In drier areas, livestock farming is developed. Many tree species are used on the farm, since their wood does not rot in water. Human activities often lead to desertification of savannas.

Equatorial rainforests . This natural zone is located in an equatorial and partly subequatorial climate. These forests are found in the Amazon, Congo, Malay Peninsula and Sunda Islands, as well as other smaller islands.

The climate here is hot and humid. Temperature all year round is +24-28°C. The seasons are not expressed here. Humid equatorial forests are located within an area of low pressure, where, as a result of intense heating, upward air currents are formed and a lot of precipitation falls (up to 1500 mm per year) throughout the year.

On the coasts, where the wind from the ocean influences, precipitation falls even more (up to 10,000 mm). Precipitation falls evenly throughout the year. Such climatic conditions contribute to the development of lush evergreen vegetation, although, strictly speaking, trees change leaves: some shed them every six months, others after a completely arbitrary period, and others replace their leaves in parts. Flowering periods also vary, and are even more erratic. The most common cycles are ten and fourteen months. Other plants may bloom once every ten years. But at the same time, plants of the same species bloom at the same time so that they have time to pollinate each other. Plants in this zone have little branching.

The trees of humid equatorial forests have disc-shaped roots, large leathery leaves, the shiny surface of which saves them from excessive evaporation and scorching rays of the sun, from the impact of rain jets during heavy downpours. Many leaves end in a graceful spine. It's a tiny drain. In plants of the lower tier, the leaves, on the contrary, are thin and delicate. The upper tier of equatorial forests is formed by ficus and palm trees. In South America, ceiba grows in the upper tier, reaching a height of 80 m. Bananas and tree ferns grow in the lower tiers. Large plants are entwined with vines. There are many orchids on the trees of equatorial forests, epiphytes are also found, and sometimes flowers form directly on the trunks. For example, cocoa tree flowers. In the forest of the equatorial belt it is so hot and humid that favorable conditions are created for the development of moss and algae that cling to the crown and hang from the branches. They are epiphytes. Tree flowers in the crown cannot be pollinated by the wind because the air there is practically still. Consequently, they are pollinated by insects and small birds, which are lured by their brightly colored corolla or sweet scent. The fruits of the plants are also brightly colored. This allows them to solve the problem of transporting seeds. The ripe fruits of many trees are eaten by birds and animals; the seeds are not digested and, together with the droppings, end up far from the parent plant.

There are many native plants in equatorial forests. These are primarily vines. They begin their life on the ground in the form of a small bush, and then, tightly wrapping themselves around the stem of a giant tree, they climb up. The roots are in the soil, so the plant’s nutrition does not come from the giant tree, but sometimes the use of these trees for support by vines can lead to oppression and death. Some ficus trees are also “robbers”. Their seeds germinate on the bark of a tree, the roots tightly grip the trunk and branches of this host tree, which begins to die. Its trunk is rotting, but the roots of the ficus have become thick and dense and are already able to support themselves.

Equatorial forests are home to many valuable plants, such as the oil palm, from the fruits of which palm oil is obtained. The wood from many trees is used to make furniture and is exported in large quantities. This group includes ebony, the wood of which is black or dark green. Many plants of equatorial forests produce valuable fruits, seeds, juice, and bark, which are used in technology and medicine.

The equatorial forests of South America are called selva . Selva is located in the periodically flooded area of the Amazon River basin. Sometimes, when describing moist equatorial forests, the name is used hylea , sometimes these forests are called jungle , although, strictly speaking, jungles are the forest thickets of South and Southeast Asia located within the subequatorial and tropical climate.

Arctic desert zone. This zone includes Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya, Severnaya Zemlya, and the New Siberian Islands. The zone is characterized by a huge amount of ice and snow in all seasons of the year. They are the main element of the landscape.

Arctic air prevails here all year round, the annual radiation balance is less than 400 mJ/m2, and average July temperatures are 4-2°C. The relative humidity is very high - 85%. Precipitation amounts to 400-200 mm, almost all of which falls in solid form, which contributes to the formation of ice sheets and glaciers. However, in some places the supply of moisture in the air is small and therefore, when the temperature rises and strong winds, a large lack of moisture occurs and strong evaporation of snow occurs.

The soil-forming process in the Arctic occurs in a thin active layer and is at the initial stage of development. In the valleys of rivers and streams and on sea terraces, two types of soils are formed - typical polar desert soils on polygonal drained plains and polar desert solonchak soils on saline coastal areas. They are characterized by a low humus content (up to 1.5%), weakly expressed genetic horizons and very low thickness. In the Arctic deserts there are almost no swamps, few lakes, and salt spots form on the soil surface in dry weather with strong winds.

The vegetation cover is extremely sparse and spotty, characterized by a poor species composition and extremely low productivity. Low-organized plants dominate: lichens, mosses, algae. The annual growth of mosses and lichens does not exceed 1-2 mm. Plants are extremely selective in their distribution. More or less closed groups of plants exist only in places sheltered from cold winds, on fine earth, where the thickness of the active layer is greater.

The main background of the Arctic deserts is formed by crustose lichens. Hypnum mosses are common; sphagnum mosses appear only in the south of the zone in very limited quantities. Higher plants include saxifrage, arctic poppy, semolina, chickweed, arctic pike, bluegrass and some others. The grasses grow luxuriantly, forming hemispherical cushions up to 10 cm in diameter on a fertilized substrate near the nesting areas of gulls and lemming burrows. Ice buttercup and polar willow grow near patches of snow, reaching only 3-5 cm in height. The fauna, like the flora, is poor in species; There are lemmings, arctic foxes, reindeer, polar bears, and the most common birds are the ptarmigan and the polar owl. On the rocky shores there are numerous bird colonies - massive nesting grounds for seabirds (guillemots, little auks, white gulls, fulmars, eiders, etc.). The southern shores of Franz Josef Land and the western shores of Novaya Zemlya are a continuous bird market.

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