Alexander, king of Macedonia, is one of the most legendary representatives of antiquity. Despite its very short life, the young king was able to enslave the impregnable Persian empire in just 12 years of his reign. And to this day there are many legends and myths about the great commander. The biography of Alexander the Great still contains many white spots. So, who is he, this one? great person, who amazed everyone with his art of war?

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The making of a great commander

The Greek king, the great commander Alexander the Third is one of the most prominent personalities in history. He was also called the Great and at the same time they noted the cruelty and ruthlessness of this ambitious conqueror, who changed the entire course of history, the fate of not only his own, but also many other peoples of the world. Alexander the Great's height by today's standards was short - 150 cm, but for that time it was considered average.

The birthplace of the great conqueror is the city of Pella, the year is 356 BC. The father was the Macedonian king Philip II, who laid the foundation for future great conquests. Without this man, the future huge empire simply would not have existed.

The exam may require information about the name of Alexander's mother. Her name was Olympias, her character fully corresponded to him, she was an unusual, intelligent, majestic and strong woman.

The future ruler and conqueror was especially attached to the Olympics and relied on it in everything. Mother played an important role in the life of Alexander the Great.

Important! Basically, they pay more attention to Philip II, but thanks to it, it was the mother of Alexander the Great who helped her son reach unprecedented heights.

Olympias, priestess of Dionysus, tamer of snakes, contributed to the suicide of Philip's seventh wife and children. It was she who became regent for her son. While he was in the East, she was an adviser and assistant in all matters. The intellectual development of the future commander was carried out by the Greek philosopher Aristotle.

This is Macedonian's teacher in the field of politics and methods of government. Father Philip II participated in numerous military campaigns, so he was practically not at home. The boy was raised by Aristotle, who paid special attention to the study of politics, ethics, as well as medicine, literature and philosophy. We can say that in his youth the future conqueror received a classical Greek education of that era.

Having become king of Macedonia at the age of twenty, in the first years of his reign he proved himself to be a great strategist and conqueror, capable of creating a huge empire, the territory of which reached the borders of India itself. Life, oversaturated with military campaigns, ended too early - in 323 BC, Alexander was only 33 years old. Courage and activities of the young king have become an integral part of the culture and history of the whole world.

The exploits of the great commander are reflected in the works of writers, artists and filmmakers, among them the following can be noted:

• works of famous authors of antiquity: Diodorus, Siculo and Plutarch. Diodorus Siculus, a historian of antiquity, wrote a biography of the great commander, which was included in the historical collections “Library of History”. Siculo dedicated a number of poems and songs to the Macedonian king, which are among the first documents in Latin;
• the Italian poet Dante Alighieri wrote about Alexander in the 12th canto of part 3 “” called “Hell”, where the narrative was dedicated to tyrants;
• The figure of the conqueror still inspires many directors. A striking example is the film of the same name with Colin Farrell in leading role, released in 2004.

A life full of conquests

At the age of only 16, he was forced to temporarily replace his father on the throne of Macedonia, who went on a military campaign to conquer.

Two years later, the young ruler had to defend the interests of his state and survive first military test- Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC. The Macedonian army defeated the Greek army. In 336 BC, after Philip II was assassinated by the head of the imperial guard, his son took the throne of Macedonia.

The young king's ascension to the throne was not easy. The death of his father created problems in the government and revived the Greeks' hopes for independence from Macedonia. In addition, it stopped preparations for the invasion of Macedonian troops into Asia with the aim of enslaving the Persian Empire. After destroying the enemies within the government, having dealt with the conspirators and having secured the support of the Macedonian army, the king decided first of all to strengthen the position of Macedonia in Greece. what territories were conquered by the army of Alexander the Great during his reign.

Corinth

In 336 BC. Alexander was appointed commander-in-chief of the military League of Corinth. In the city he met the famous philosopher Diogenes. The extravagant philosopher lived in a barrel, and greatly surprised the young ruler with his lifestyle. Because the king agreed to fulfill any desire of a philosopher. He suggested that the ruler move away, since he was blocking the sun. Surprised by the answer, the young warrior said: “If I were not Alexander, I would like to be Diogenes.”

Thebes

In 335 BC. The rebel city of Thebes was destroyed and all its people were enslaved. Having established a strong position in Greece, he decided to complete the plans of his father Philip and free the Greeks enslaved by the Persian Empire.

Conquest of Asia

In 334 BC. The Macedonian army arrived in Asia at the same time as a huge fleet with the goal of attacking the Persians. There is information that Alexander first went to Troy to pay tribute to the great Greek warrior Achilles.

That same year, the Gordian Knot was broken. According to legend, the person who managed to do this soon became the ruler of all of Asia. Legend was brought to life.

In 333 BC the great military leader won the battle with the troops of the Persian king Darius the Third and liberated all the Greek cities, whose inhabitants welcomed him as a liberator.

Finally, the Greek cities were free, but Aria managed to escape. It was necessary not only to strengthen the position of Macedonia among the Greeks, but also to capture the lands of the barbarians and Persians completely, thus creating the Macedonian Empire. It was these two desires that prompted Alexander to make a number of military decisions:

• during the fighting of the period 332-325. BC, the Persian Empire was completely enslaved.
• 332 BC Phenicia, Syria and Egypt were conquered, the inhabitants called their conqueror the son of Amon. Only representatives of the pharaoh's family dynasty received such a title.
• 331 BC Victory was again won over the army of Darius, after which the conquest of the capitals of the Persian Empire began: Babylon, Susa, Persepolis and Pasargadae. After the death of Darius at the hand of Besso, the conquest of the Persian Empire in 327 BC. was completed.

The death of the great conqueror

At the age of 33, the victorious tsar was at the peak of his glory, but misfortunes were not long in coming. The numerous expenses of the war led the people and the government into intolerance towards the new regime.

To avoid problems, the great conqueror built military fortified cities in all strategic points of the empire's territory, appointing their closest military commanders as rulers. All cities were called Alexandria. All attempts to raise a rebellion against his rule were nipped in the bud.

Attention! The capital of the Macedonian Empire was moved to Babylon, which at that time was located in the very center of the conquered territory.

Hoping to end the strife between his empire, the Greeks and Persia, Alexander the Great married Statera, the eldest daughter of the Persian king Darius, and many of his associates married Persian women.

On the eve of a new trip to Saudi Arabia, June 10, 323 BC., Alexander died suddenly. The death is believed to have been caused by malaria. Although this information is not confirmed by ancient documents and may be erroneous.

Other reasons could be: liver cirrhosis or poisoning. During a noisy feast, secret enemies presented the emperor with a cup of poisoned wine. The true circumstances of the death of the Macedonian ruler are still unknown.

It is worth noting a very interesting fact regarding the heritage throne after death Macedonian king. Although he had two sons, neither of them took his father's throne. As predicted in the Bible centuries before Alexander's reign, his empire was divided among the four generals of his army.

Conqueror of women's hearts

Not only did Alexander the Great’s wars end in triumphant victories and brought him fame, but his personal life was no less eventful.

His ability to win women's hearts has become one of the favorite themes of many poets and writers of our day. There were many women, but those who deserve special attention managed to win the heart young emperor.

The first wife of Alexander the Great, Roxana, was considered one of the most beautiful women in Asia. Perhaps the choice was due precisely to this reason; as we know, the Conqueror was distinguished by special vanity. The emperor's second wife was Statira, the eldest daughter of the Persian king Darius. The third wife was Parysatis, daughter of King Artaxerxes III of Persia. In addition to official wives, there were a large number of mistresses

Unshakable character

From an early age, Alexander began to study the art of war and diplomacy. Thanks to his stubborn and unshakable character, he knew exactly what he wanted and could independently make serious decisions regarding both strategic decisions and transformations in all other areas of life.

The king limited himself in food without special problems and for a long time remained completely indifferent to opposite sex. He had others important goals. But if his leadership was not recognized by others, he was ready to sacrifice everything to be in the spotlight. Many ancient historians speak of him as a proud, self-centered person.

The great military leader had a special charisma, therefore he enjoyed authority among his soldiers, was distinguished by great courage, and fought on the front line shoulder to shoulder with ordinary soldiers.

Biography of Alexander the Great

Alexander the Great, biography

Conclusion

Alexander the Great is a very interesting personality and unique in its own way. The commander serves as an example for many. Studying the biography of the great conqueror will be very useful thing, will leave a bright imprint on the mind and heart of any person.

Alexander the Great (Alexander III the Great, other Greek Ἀλέξανδρος Γ" ὁ Μέγας, lat. Alexander III Magnus, born presumably July 20 (21), 356 - June 10, 323 BC) - Macedonian king from 336 BC from the Argead dynasty, commander, creator world power that collapsed after his death. In Muslim tradition, can be identified with the legendary king Dhul-Qarnayn. In Western historiography he is best known as Alexander the Great. Even in Antiquity, Alexander gained the reputation of one of the greatest commanders in history.

Having ascended the throne at the age of 20 after the death of his father, the Macedonian king Philip II, Alexander secured the northern borders of Macedonia and completed the subjugation of Greece with the defeat of the rebellious city of Thebes. In the spring of 334 BC. e. Alexander began a legendary campaign to the East and in seven years completely conquered the Persian Empire. Then he began the conquest of India, but at the insistence of the soldiers, tired of the long campaign, he retreated.

The cities founded by Alexander, which are still the largest in several countries in our time, and the colonization of new territories in Asia by the Greeks contributed to the spread of Greek culture in the East. Almost reaching the age of 33, Alexander died in Babylon from a serious illness. Immediately his empire was divided among his generals (Diadochi), and a series of Diadochi wars reigned for several decades.

Birth and childhood

Alexander was born in 356 BC. e. in the Macedonian capital Pella. According to legend, Alexander was born on the night when Herostratus set fire to the Temple of Artemis of Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Already during Alexander's campaigns, a legend spread that the Persian magicians interpreted this fire as a sign of a future catastrophe for their state. But since all sorts of legends and signs always accompanied the birth and life of the great people of antiquity, the fortunately coinciding date of Alexander’s birth is sometimes considered artificial.

Alexander's exact birthday is unknown. It is often taken for July 20, since according to Plutarch Alexander was born “on the sixth day of the month hecatombeon (ancient Greek ἑκατομβαιών) , which the Macedonians call loi(ancient Greek λῷος)"; There are also dates between July 21 and 23. 1 day of hecatombeon is often taken as July 15, but exact correspondence has not been proven. However, from the testimony of Aristobulus, recorded by Arrian, it can be calculated that Alexander was born in the fall. In addition, according to the testimony of Demosthenes, a contemporary of the king, the Macedonian month Loy actually corresponded to the Attic boedromion (September and October). Therefore, the period from October 6 to October 10 is often given as the date of birth.

His parents are the Macedonian king Philip II and the daughter of the Epirus king Olympias. Alexander himself, according to tradition, descended from the mythical Hercules through the kings of Argos, from whom the first Macedonian king Karan allegedly branched off. According to the legendary version, which became widespread at the instigation of Alexander himself, his real father was Pharaoh Nectaneb II. It was expected that the child would be named Amyntas in honor of Philip's father, but he named him Alexander - probably with political overtones in honor of the Macedonian king Alexander I, nicknamed "Phihelline" (friend of the Greeks).

The greatest influence on little Alexander was his mother. The father was engaged in wars with the Greek policies, and the child spent most of his time with Olympias. She probably tried to turn her son against Philip, and Alexander developed an ambivalent attitude towards his father: while admiring his stories about the war, he at the same time felt hostility towards him because of his mother’s gossip.

Alexander was seen as a talented child from early childhood. Thanks to this, he was recognized very early as the heir to his father's business, and Olympias became the most influential of Philip's at least six wives. However, Alexander could be the only son of Philip worthy to accept his kingdom. The fact is that, according to ancient authors, his brother Philip (later known as Philip III Arrhidaeus) was weak-minded. Philip had no other reliably known sons, or at least none of them were ready to rule his father's kingdom by 336.

From early childhood, Alexander was prepared for diplomacy, politics, and war. Although Alexander was born in Pella, he, along with other noble youths, was educated in Mieza not far from the city. The choice of a place remote from the capital was probably due to the desire to remove the child from the mother. Alexander’s educators and mentors were: a relative on his mother’s side, Leonid, to whom he retained deep affection in mature age, despite the strict Spartan upbringing in childhood; jester and actor Lysimachus; and from 343 BC. e. - the great philosopher Aristotle. The choice of him as a mentor was not accidental - Aristotle was close to the Macedonian royal house, and was also well acquainted with Hermias, the tyrant of Atarneus, who maintained friendly relations with Philip. Under the guidance of Aristotle, who emphasized the study of ethics and politics, Alexander received a classical Greek education and was also instilled with a love of medicine, philosophy and literature. Although all the Greeks read classical works Homer, Alexander studied the Iliad especially diligently, since his mother traced her origins to the main character of this epic, Achilles. Subsequently, he often re-read this work. It is also known from sources that Alexander had a good knowledge of “Anabasis” by Xenophon, Euripides, as well as the poets Pindar, Stesichorus, Telestus, Philoxenus and others.

Youth

Even in his childhood, Alexander differed from his peers: he was indifferent to bodily joys and indulged in them very moderately; Alexander's ambition was boundless. He showed no interest in women, but at the age of 10 he tamed Bucephalus, a stallion, because of whose obstinacy King Philip refused to take him. Plutarch on the character of Alexander:

“Philip saw that Alexander was stubborn by nature, and when he got angry, he did not yield to any violence, but with a reasonable word he could easily be persuaded to accept the right decision; That’s why my father tried to convince more than to command.”

At the age of 16, Alexander remained with the king in Macedonia under the supervision of the general Antipater, when Philip was besieging Byzantium. Having led the troops remaining in Macedonia, he suppressed the uprising of the Thracian tribe of the Medes and created the city of Alexandropol on the site of the Thracian settlement (by analogy with Philippopolis, which his father named in his honor). And 2 years later, in 338 BC. e. At the Battle of Chaeronea, Alexander showed personal courage and skills as a commander, leading the left wing of the Macedonian army under the supervision of experienced military leaders.

Alexander demonstrated his penchant for adventure in his youth, when, without his father’s will, he wanted to marry the daughter of Pixodarus, the ruler of Caria. Later, he seriously quarreled with his father because of the latter’s marriage to the young noble Cleopatra, which resulted in a breakdown in relations between Philip and Olympias, whom Alexander sincerely loved. Philip's wedding to a noble Macedonian woman may have been organized by part of the local aristocracy. Many noble Macedonians did not want to accept the fact that Philip’s heir would be the son of a foreigner, who, moreover, was under her strong influence. After this, Olympias attempted to overthrow Philip with the help of her brother Alexander of Molossus, the ruler of Epirus. However, Philip learned about Olympias's plans and invited the king of Epirus to marry Cleopatra, the sister of his heir Alexander, and he agreed. By the time of Cleopatra's wedding, the future conqueror had reconciled with his father and returned to Macedonia.

During the wedding celebrations in 336 BC. e. Philip was killed by his bodyguard Pausanias. The circumstances of the murder are not entirely clear, and the possibility of participation in the conspiracy by various interested parties who became Philip's enemies as a result of his aggressive policies is often pointed out. Pausanias himself was captured and immediately killed by people from Alexander’s retinue, which is sometimes interpreted as the desire of the future king to hide the true orderer of the attack. The Macedonian army, which knew Alexander well and had seen him in battle, proclaimed him king (probably at the direction of Antipater).

Ascension to the throne

Greece and Macedonia in 336 BC. e.

Upon ascending the throne, Alexander first dealt with the alleged participants in the conspiracy against his father and, according to Macedonian tradition, with other possible rivals. As a rule, they were accused of conspiracy and actions on behalf of Persia - for this, for example, two princes from the Lyncestid dynasty (Arrabai and Heromen), representing Upper Macedonia and laying claim to the Macedonian throne, were executed. However, their brother Alexander was Antipater’s son-in-law, and therefore Alexander brought him closer to him. At the same time, he executed his cousin Aminta and left his half-sister Kinana a widow. Amyntas represented the "senior" line of the Argeads (from Perdiccas III) and nominally ruled Macedonia for a time in its infancy until he was removed by his guardian Philip II. Finally, Alexander decided to eliminate the popular commander Attalus - he was accused of treason and negotiations with Athenian politicians. Alexander attracted the nobility and the Macedonian people to his side by abolishing taxes. Moreover, after the reign of Philip, the treasury was practically empty, and debts reached 500 talents.

At the news of Philip's death, many of his enemies tried to take advantage of the resulting difficult situation. Thus, the Thracian and Illyrian tribes rebelled, opponents of Macedonian rule became more active in Athens, and Thebes and some other Greek city-states tried to expel the garrisons left by Philip and weaken the influence of Macedonia. However, Alexander took the initiative into his own hands. As Philip's successor, he organized a congress in Corinth, at which the previously concluded agreement with the Greeks was confirmed. The agreement declared the full sovereignty of the Greek city states, their independent decision of internal affairs, and the right to withdraw from the agreement. For guidance foreign policy of the Greek states, a general council was created and the “position” of a Hellenic hegemon with military powers was introduced. The Greeks made concessions, and many policies admitted Macedonian garrisons (this, in particular, was what Thebes did).

Alexander: - Ask me whatever you want!
Diogenes: - Don’t block the sun for me!
(Jean-Baptiste Regnault, 1818)

In Corinth, Alexander met the Cynic philosopher Diogenes. According to legend, the king invited Diogenes to ask him for whatever he wanted, and the philosopher replied, “Don’t block the sun for me.” Soon Alexander visited Delphi, but they refused to receive him there, citing non-public days. But the king found the Pythia (soothsayer) and demanded that she predict his fate, and she exclaimed in response, “ You are invincible, my son!».

Marching north and taking Thebes

Having a still calm Greece behind him, eyeing a new king, in the spring of 335 BC. e. set out on a campaign against the rebel Illyrians and Thracians. According to modern estimates, no more than 15 thousand soldiers went on the northern campaign, and almost all of them were Macedonians. First, Alexander defeated the Thracians in the battle of Mount Emon (Shipka): the barbarians set up a camp of carts on a hill and hoped to put the Macedonians to flight by derailing their carts; Alexander ordered his soldiers to avoid the carts in an organized manner. During the battle, the Macedonians captured many of the women and children whom the barbarians had left in the camp and transported them to Macedonia. Soon the king defeated the Tribal tribe, and their ruler Sirmus, along with most of his fellow tribesmen, took refuge on the island of Pevka on the Danube. Alexander, using the few ships that arrived from Byzantium, was unable to land on the island. As harvest time approached, Alexander's army could destroy all the Triballi's crops and try to force them to surrender before their supplies ran out. However, the king soon noticed that troops of the Getae tribe were gathering on the other side of the Danube. The Getae hoped that Alexander would not land on the shore occupied by soldiers, but the king, on the contrary, considered the appearance of the Getae a challenge to himself. Therefore, on homemade rafts, he crossed to the other side of the Danube, defeated the Getae and thereby deprived the ruler of the Triballi Sirmus of hope for a quick end to the war. It is possible that Alexander borrowed the organization of the crossing from Xenophon, who described the crossing of the Euphrates on homemade boats in his work Anabasis. Soon Alexander concluded alliance treaties with all the northern barbarians.

While Alexander was settling matters in the north, in the south, at the end of summer, under the influence of a false rumor about Alexander’s death, a rebellion broke out in Thebes, the Greek city most affected by Philip. The inhabitants of Thebes called on all of Greece to revolt, but the Greeks, while verbally expressing solidarity with the Thebans, in fact preferred to observe the development of events.

The Athenian orator Demosthenes called Alexander a child, convincing his fellow citizens that he was not dangerous. The king, however, sent an answer that he would soon appear at the walls of Athens and prove that he was already a grown man. In the tense situation, Alexander did not waste time. With rapid marches, he transferred the army from Illyria to Thebes. The siege took several days. Before the storming of Thebes, Alexander repeatedly proposed peace negotiations and was refused.

At the end of September 335, the assault on the city began. Sources give various reasons for the defeat of the Thebans: Arrian believes that the Theban troops lost heart and could no longer restrain the Macedonians, while Diodorus believes that the main reason was the discovery by the Macedonians of an unprotected section of the city walls. In any case, Macedonian troops occupied the walls of the city, and the Macedonian garrison opened the gates and helped surround the Thebans. The city was captured and plundered by storm, and the entire population was enslaved. With the proceeds (approximately 440 talents), Alexander fully or partially covered the debts of the Macedonian treasury. All of Greece was amazed both by the fate of the ancient city, one of the largest and strongest in Hellas, and by the quick victory of the Macedonian weapons. Residents of a number of cities themselves brought to trial politicians who called for a rebellion against Macedonian hegemony. Almost immediately after the capture of Thebes, Alexander headed back to Macedonia, where he began preparing for a campaign in Asia.

At this stage, Alexander’s military expeditions took the form of pacifying opponents of the Corinthian League and the Panhellenic idea of ​​vengeance on the barbarians. Alexander justifies all his aggressive actions during the “Macedonian” period by an inextricable connection with the goals of the Pan-Hellenic Union. After all, it was the Corinthian Congress that formally sanctioned Alexander’s dominant status in Hellas.

Conquest of Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt (334-332 BC)

Having appointed Antipater as his governor in Europe and leaving him 12 thousand infantry and 1500 cavalry, in the early spring of 334 BC. e. Alexander, at the head of the united forces of Macedonia, the Greek city-states (except for Sparta, which refused to participate) and the allied Thracians, set out on a campaign against the Persians. The moment to start the campaign was chosen very well, since the Persian fleet was still in the ports of Asia Minor and could not prevent the army from crossing. In May, he crossed the Hellespont into Asia Minor in the area where the legendary Troy was located. According to legend, sailing to the other shore, Alexander threw a spear towards Asia, which symbolized that everything conquered would belong to the king.

Diodorus Siculus gives the composition of his troops, generally confirmed by other sources:

• Infantry - a total of 32 thousand - 12 thousand Macedonians (9 thousand in the Macedonian phalanx and 3 thousand in the shield-bearing units), 7 thousand allies (from Greek cities), 5 thousand mercenaries (Greeks), 7 thousand barbarians (Thracians and Illyrians), 1 thousand archers and Agrians (Paeonian tribe in Thrace).
• Cavalry - a total of 1500-1800 Macedonians (hetaira), 1800 Thessalians and 600 Greeks from other regions, 900 Thracians and Paeonians. That is, in total there were 5 thousand cavalry in Alexander’s army.

In addition, there were several thousand Macedonian soldiers in Asia Minor, who crossed there under Philip. Thus, the total number of Alexander’s troops at the beginning of the campaign reached 50 thousand soldiers. There were also many scientists and historians at Alexander’s headquarters - Alexander initially set himself research goals.

Alexander's campaign of 334.

Alexander's campaign of 333.

Alexander's campaign of 332-331.

When Alexander's army found itself near the city of Lampsacus on the banks of the Hellespont, the townspeople sent the rhetorician Anaximenes, who taught Alexander oratory, to Alexander to ask him to save the city. Expecting sophisticated rhetorical tricks and requests from his teacher, Alexander exclaimed that he would not do anything that Anaximenes asked. However, the rhetorician asked him to capture and plunder his hometown, and the king had to keep his word - not to capture or plunder Lampsacus. Occupying the nearby town of Priapus, Alexander's soldiers were surprised to learn about the cult of the local deity of the same name, and soon his veneration spread throughout the Mediterranean.

The commander of the Greek mercenaries in the Persian service, Memnon, who was well acquainted with the Macedonian army (he fought against Philip’s troops sent to Asia Minor) and personally knew Alexander, recommended refraining from open clashes with Alexander’s army and suggested using scorched earth tactics. He also insisted on the need to actively use the fleet and to strike at Macedonia itself. However, the Persian satraps refused to listen to the advice of the Greek and decided to give battle to Alexander on the Granik River near Troy. In the Battle of Granicus, the satraps' detachments, mostly cavalry (numbering up to 20 thousand), were scattered, the Persian infantry fled, and the Greek hoplite mercenaries were surrounded and exterminated (2 thousand were taken prisoner).

Most cities in Asia Minor voluntarily opened their gates to the winner. Phrygia surrendered completely, and its satrap Atisius committed suicide. Soon, the commandant of the city of Sardis, Mithren, surrendered the city, despite the fact that it was perfectly fortified, and the citadel located on the mountain was practically impregnable. Thanks to this betrayal, Alexander gained one of the strongest fortresses in Asia Minor and the richest treasury without a fight. In gratitude, the king introduced Mithren into his inner circle, and soon appointed him satrap of Armenia. The residents of Ephesus also surrendered the city without a fight: before the arrival of Alexander, they overthrew the pro-Persian elite and restored democracy. In place of the Persian satraps, Alexander appointed Macedonians, Greeks, or, as in the case of Mithrenos, Persians personally loyal to him.

Shortly after arriving in Caria, Alexander was met by Ada, the former satrap of Caria, who had been removed from power by her brother Pixodarus. She surrendered to him the city of Alinda, where she lived after her removal, and said that Alexander was like a son to her. Sometimes this phrase, recorded by Arrian, is interpreted as legal adoption. For him, this became an opportunity to win over some of the Carians to his side - Ada still enjoyed authority among the local aristocracy.

In Caria, Alexander faced resistance from the cities of Miletus and Halicarnassus, where there were strong Persian garrisons, and where the troops of the satraps who survived the battle of Granicus accumulated. Alexander's entire fleet approached Miletus, with the help of which he crossed the Hellespont. However, within a few days a huge Persian fleet arrived at the city. Despite this, Alexander did not lift the siege of the city and rejected the offer of the Milesian oligarchy to open the city to both armies. This was probably due to the fact that the commandant of the city, Hegesistratus, conducted secret negotiations with Alexander about surrender and had already contributed to the occupation of the outer fortifications of the city by the Greeks. The very next morning, the Greeks, using siege engines, destroyed the walls of Miletus, after which troops broke into the city and captured it. In addition, the Greeks forced the Persian fleet to retreat because it did not have sufficient supplies of food and water. Soon the Persians returned, but after a small clash they again sailed from Miletus. After this, Alexander took an unexpected step and ordered the dissolution of almost his entire fleet. Modern historians see this decision of the king as one of the few mistakes he made.

Alexander cuts the Gordian knot.
(Jean-Simon Berthelemy, late 18th-early 19th centuries)

Already near Halicarnassus, the king regretted his decision - the city was supplied from the sea, and since Alexander did not have the opportunity to block the supply channel, the army had to prepare for a deliberately difficult assault. During 334 BC. e. and until the autumn of 333, Alexander conquered all of Asia Minor.

Having barely left Asia Minor from Cilicia, Alexander encountered the Persian king Darius III in battle at Issami in November 333 BC. e. The terrain favored Alexander; a huge Persian army was squeezed into a narrow gorge between the sea and the mountains. The Battle of Issus ended with the complete defeat of Darius; he himself fled from the battlefield, leaving his family in the camp, which went to the Macedonians as a prize. Macedonian troops captured part of the treasures of the Persian king and many noble captives in Damascus.

The victory at Issus opened the way to the south for the Macedonians. Alexander, skirting the Mediterranean coast, headed to Phenicia with the goal of conquering coastal cities and depriving the Persian fleet of bases. Peaceful conditions, twice proposed by Darius, were rejected by Alexander. Of the cities of Phenicia, only the impregnable Tire, located on the island, refused to recognize the power of Alexander. However, in July 332 BC. e. After a 7-month siege, the impregnable fortress city fell after an assault from the sea. With his fall, the Persian fleet in the Mediterranean ceased to exist, and Alexander could freely receive reinforcements by sea.

After Phenicia, Alexander continued his journey to Egypt through Palestine, where he was resisted by the city of Gaza, but it was also taken by storm after a 2-month siege.

Egypt, whose armed forces were destroyed at the Battle of Issus, was surrendered by the satrap Mazak without any resistance. The local population welcomed him as a deliverer from the hated Persian yoke and willingly recognized his power. Alexander did not touch local customs and religious beliefs; in general, he preserved the system of governing Egypt, supporting it with Macedonian garrisons. Alexander stayed in Egypt for six months from December 332 BC. e. to May 331 There the king founded the city of Alexandria, which soon became one of the main cultural centers ancient world And largest city Egypt (currently the second largest city in Egypt). Also dating back to this time was his long and dangerous pilgrimage to the oracle of Zeus-Amon in the Siwa oasis in the Libyan desert. After meeting him, Alexander began to actively spread the rumor about himself that he was the son of the supreme god Zeus. (The ascension of the pharaoh to the throne has long been accompanied in Egypt by his sacralization; Alexander adopted this tradition).

Having strengthened himself sufficiently in the conquered territory, Alexander decided to delve into lands unknown to the Greeks, into the central regions of Asia, where the Persian king Darius III managed to assemble a new huge army.

Defeat of the Persian Empire (331-330 BC)

In the summer of 331 BC. e. Alexander crossed the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and found himself on the outskirts of Media, the heart of the Persian state. On a large plain (on the territory of modern Iraqi Kurdistan), specially prepared for the action of large masses of cavalry, King Darius was waiting for the Macedonians. October 1, 331 BC. e. A grandiose battle took place at Gaugamela, during which the troops of the Persians and the peoples subject to them were defeated. King Darius, as in the previous battle, fled from the battlefield, although his troops were still fighting, and the outcome of the battle was not at all determined. Meanwhile, the battle of Megalopolis took place between the Greeks and Macedonians, in which the Spartan king Agis and about five thousand Spartan soldiers died, the losses of the Macedonian side under the command of Antipater amounted to about three and a half thousand dead. Having learned about the outcome of the battle, Alexander said to his companions: “While we are here fighting the great king [Darius], there is a mouse war going on in Arcadia.” Thus, he showed his extreme rejection of the civil strife that was tearing apart ancient greek lands, and treating them as something insignificant, unimportant in the light of his grandiose campaign, despite the fact that in its scale the Battle of Megalopolis was at least comparable to the battles under his command, and in terms of losses of Macedonian forces almost three times surpassed the Battle of Gaugamela.

Alexander moved to the south, where ancient Babylon and Susa, one of the capitals of the Persian Empire, opened their gates to him. The Persian satraps, having lost faith in Darius, began to serve the king of Asia, as Alexander began to be called.

From Susa, Alexander headed through mountain passes to Persepolis, the center of the original Persian land. After an unsuccessful attempt to break out on the move, Alexander and part of his army bypassed the troops of the satrap of Persia, Ariobarzanes, and in January 330 BC. e. Persepolis fell. The Macedonian army rested in the city until the end of spring, and before leaving, the palace of the Persian kings was burned. According to the famous legend, the fire was organized by the hetaera Thais of Athens, the mistress of the military leader Ptolemy, inciting drunk company Alexandra with his friends.

In May 330 BC. e. Alexander resumed his pursuit of Darius, first in Media and then in Parthia. In July, Darius was killed as a result of a conspiracy among his military leaders. The Bactrian satrap Bessus, who killed Darius, named himself the new king of the Persian Empire under the name Artaxerxes. Bess tried to organize resistance in the eastern satrapies, but was captured by his comrades, handed over to Alexander and executed by him in June 329 BC. e.

King of Asia

Having become the ruler of Asia, Alexander stopped looking at the Persians as a conquered people, tried to equalize the victors with the vanquished and combine their customs into a single whole. The measures taken by Alexander initially concerned external forms such as oriental clothing, a harem, and Persian court ceremonies. However, he did not demand compliance with them from the Macedonians. Alexander tried to rule the Persians like their previous kings. In historiography, there is no consensus on the title of Alexander - by adopting the title “King of Asia,” the new king could either indicate the continuity of his state with the Achaemenid Empire, or, on the contrary, he could emphasize the contrast between the new power and Persia, since he did not use such Achaemenid titles as “king of kings” " and others.

The first complaints against Alexander appeared in the fall of 330 BC. e. The fighting comrades, accustomed to the simplicity of morals and friendly relations between the king and his subjects, muttered dully, refusing to accept Eastern concepts, in particular proskynesis - prostrating and kissing the king's feet. His closest friends and court flatterers followed Alexander without hesitation.

The Macedonian army was tired of the long campaign, the soldiers wanted to return home and did not share the goals of their king to become the master of the whole world. At the end of 330 BC. e. a conspiracy against Alexander by several ordinary soldiers was discovered (only 2 participants are known). However, the consequences of the unsuccessful conspiracy were more than serious due to the inter-clan struggle within Alexander’s entourage. One of the leading commanders, the commander of the hetaira Filota, was accused of passive complicity (knew, but did not inform). Even under torture, Filota did not admit to evil intent, but was executed by soldiers at a meeting. Philotas' father, the general Parmenion, was killed without trial or any proof of guilt due to Alexander's increased suspicion. Less significant officers, who were also suspected, were acquitted.

In the summer of 327 BC. e. the “conspiracy of pages”, noble young men under the Macedonian king, was discovered. In addition to the direct culprits, Callisthenes, a historian and philosopher, who alone dared to object to the king and openly criticize the new court orders, was also executed. The death of the philosopher was a logical consequence of the development of Alexander's despotic inclinations. This tendency was especially clearly manifested in the death of Cleitus the Black, the commander of the royal bodyguards, whom Alexander personally killed as a result of a drunken quarrel in the fall of 328 BC. e. The increasing frequency of information about conspiracies is associated with Alexander’s worsening paranoia.

Campaign in Central Asia (329-327 BC)

After the death of Darius III, local rulers in the eastern satrapies of the collapsed Persian Empire felt independent and were in no hurry to swear allegiance to the new monarch. Alexander, dreaming of becoming king of the entire civilized world, found himself involved in a three-year military campaign in Central Asia (329-327 BC).

It was predominantly a guerrilla war rather than a battle between armies. The Battle of Polytimetus can be noted. This was the first and only victory over the troops of the commanders of Alexander the Great in the entire history of his campaign to the East. Local tribes acted in raids and retreats, uprisings broke out in different places, and Macedonian troops sent by Alexander destroyed entire villages in retaliation. The fighting took place in Bactria and Sogdiana. Alexander the Great conquered Paropamisada and founded the city here - Alexandria of the Caucasus.

In Sogdiana, Alexander defeated the Scythians. To do this, he had to cross the Yaxartes River. The Macedonian troops did not go further north; the places there were deserted and, according to the Greeks, sparsely inhabited. In the mountains of Sogdiana and Bactria, the local population, when the Macedonians approached, hid in inaccessible mountain fortresses, but Alexander managed to capture them, if not by storm, then by cunning and perseverance. The king's troops brutally dealt with the rebellious local population, which led to the devastation of Central Asia.

In Sogdiana, Alexander founded the city of Alexandria Eskhata (Greek Αλεξάνδρεια Εσχάτη - Extreme Alexandria) (modern Khujand). In Bactria, on ancient ruins, he founded the city of Alexandria in Arachosia (modern Kandahar). There in Bactria in the winter of 328/327 BC. e. or in the summer of 327, Alexander married Roxana, the daughter of a local nobleman (possibly a satrap) Oxyartes. Although ancient authors generally assumed that the marriage was for love, this union made it possible to attract the local aristocracy to the side of the king. After the wedding, which consolidated Macedonian dominance in Bactria and Sogdiana, the king began preparations for a campaign in India.

Campaign to India (326-325 BC)

In the spring of 326 BC. e. Alexander invaded the lands of the Indian peoples from Bactria through the Khyber Pass, conquered a number of tribes, crossed the Indus River and took possession of King Ambha from Taxila (the Greeks called the king "the man from Taxila", that is, Taxil) in what is now Pakistan. The main combat operations of the Macedonian troops took place in the Punjab region.

Taxilus swore allegiance to Alexander, hoping with his help to defeat his rival, King Porus of eastern Punjab. Porus placed an army and 200 elephants on the borders of his land, and in July of 326 BC. e. A battle took place on the Hydaspes River, in which Porus' army was defeated and he himself was captured. Unexpectedly for Taxila, Alexander left Porus as king and even expanded his domain. This was Alexander’s usual policy in the conquered lands: to make the conquered rulers dependent on himself, while trying to maintain a counterbalance to them in the person of other appanage rulers.

At the end of the summer of 326 BC. e. Alexander's advance to the east stopped. On the banks of the Bias River (a tributary of the Indus), the Macedonian army refused to further follow the king due to fatigue from the long campaign and endless battles. The immediate cause was rumors of huge armies with thousands of elephants beyond the Ganges. Alexander had no choice but to turn the army south. When retreating to Persia, he planned to seize other lands.

From about November 326, the Macedonian army rafted down the Hydaspes and Indus rivers for seven months, making forays along the way and conquering the surrounding tribes. In one of the battles for the city of Mallov (January 325 BC), Alexander was seriously wounded by an arrow in the chest. Irritated by the opposition and courage of the peoples of India, Alexander exterminates entire tribes, unable to stay here for a long time to bring them to submission.

Alexander sent part of the Macedonian army under Craterus to Persia, and with the rest reached the Indian Ocean.

In the summer of 325 BC. e. Alexander moved from the mouth of the Indus to Persia along the ocean coast. The return home through the deserts of Gedrosia, one of the coastal satrapies, turned out to be more difficult than the battles - many Macedonians died on the road from the heat and thirst.

Alexander's last years

In March 324 BC. e. Alexander entered Susa, where he and his army indulged in rest after a 10-year military campaign. Having secured dominion over the conquered lands, Alexander began the final organization of his fragile empire. First of all, he dealt with the local satraps and executed many for poor governance.

One of his steps towards creating a unified state from his culturally diverse subjects was a grand wedding at which he married Stateira, the eldest daughter of Darius III, captured after the Battle of Issus, and Parysates, daughter of Artaxerxes III. Alexander also gifted his friends with wives from noble Persian families. In total, according to Arrian, up to 10 thousand Macedonians took local wives, all of them received gifts from the king.

A serious reform took place in the army: a phalanx of 30 thousand young men from Asian peoples was prepared and trained according to the Macedonian model. Local aristocrats were even enrolled in the elite cavalry of the hetaira. The Macedonians' unrest resulted in open rebellion in August 324 BC. e., when ordinary soldiers accused the king of almost treason. Having executed 13 instigators and pointedly ignoring the soldiers, Alexander forced the army, which could no longer imagine any other commander other than Alexander, into obedience.

In February 323 BC. e. Alexander stopped in Babylon, where he began to plan new wars of conquest. The immediate goal was the Arab tribes of the Arabian Peninsula; an expedition against Carthage was visible in the future. While the fleet is being prepared, Alexander builds harbors and canals, forms troops from recruits, and receives embassies.

Death of Alexander

5 days before the start of the campaign against the Arabs, Alexander fell ill. From June 7, Alexander could no longer speak. After 10 days of severe fever, June 10 or 13, 323 BC. e. Alexander the Great died in Babylon at the age of 32, just over a month short of his 33rd birthday and leaving no instructions on his heirs.

In modern historiography, the generally accepted version is that the king died naturally. However, the cause of his death has not yet been reliably established. The version most often put forward is about death from malaria. According to this version, the king’s body, weakened by daily attacks of malaria, was unable to resist two diseases at once. The second disease was presumably either pneumonia or transient leukemia (bleeding) caused by malaria. According to another version, Alexander fell ill with West Nile fever. There have also been suggestions that Alexander could have died from leishmaniasis or cancer. However, the fact that none of his dining companions fell ill reduces the plausibility of the version of an infectious disease. Historians pay attention to Alexander’s drinking bouts with generals that became more frequent towards the end of his conquests, which could have undermined his health. There is also a version about the king’s overdose of poisonous hellebore, which was used as a laxative. According to the modern opinion of British toxicologists, the symptoms of the disease from which Alexander died - prolonged vomiting, convulsions, muscle weakness and slow pulse - indicate his poisoning with a drug made from a plant called white hellebore (lat. veratrum album) - a poisonous plant, used by Greek doctors for medical purposes. Greek doctors gave a drink made from white hellebore with honey to drive out evil spirits and induce vomiting. Finally, even in antiquity, versions appeared about the poisoning of the king by Antipater, whom Alexander was going to remove from the post of governor of Macedonia, but no evidence of this appeared.

After Alexander

Division of the Empire

According to legend, before his death, Alexander gave the royal ring and seal to the military leader Perdiccas, who was to become regent for the pregnant queen Roxana. It was assumed that she would soon give birth to a legal heir, whose interests would be protected by Perdiccas until he came of age. A month after Alexander's death, Roxana gave birth to a son, named Alexander after his father. However, the supreme power of the regent Perdiccas soon began to be challenged by other military leaders (diadochi), who wanted to become independent rulers in their satrapies.

Alexander's empire actually ceased to exist already in 321 BC. e. after the death of Perdiccas in a clash with his former comrades. The Hellenistic world entered a period of wars of the Diadochi, which ended with the death of the last “heirs” in 281 BC. e. All members of Alexander's family and people close to him became victims of the struggle for power. Alexander's brother Arrhidaeus, who for some time was a puppet king under the name of Philip III, was killed; mother Alexandra Olympias; Alexandra's sister Cleopatra. In 309 BC. e. Roxana's son was killed at the age of 14 along with his mother by the diadochos Cassander; At the same time, the diadochus Polyperchon also killed Hercules, the son of Alexander by his concubine Barsina.

Alexander's Tomb

Diadochus Ptolemy took possession of the embalmed body of Alexander the Great and transported it in 322 BC. e. to Memphis. In Memphis, Alexander's body was most likely preserved in the Serapeion temple. Subsequently (probably on the initiative of Ptolemy Philadelphus) his body was transported to Alexandria.

300 years later, the first Roman emperor Octavian touched Alexander’s body, breaking off the mummy’s nose with an awkward movement. The last mention of the mummy of Alexander the Great is contained in the description of the campaign of the Roman emperor Caracalla to Alexandria in the 210s. Caracalla laid his tunic and ring on the tomb of the great conqueror. Since then, nothing has been known about the king's mummy.

There is an assumption that the sarcophagus of Nectanebo II, found by Napoleon’s French expeditionary force in Egypt and handed over to the British, could have been used for some time to bury the conqueror himself. This assumption is supported by the Ptolemies’ frequent use of pharaonic objects (even obelisks) for their own purposes, the need for the new dynasty to promote its continuity with the previous pharaohs, as well as the fact that Ptolemy I took possession of the king’s body so quickly that he might not have time to create something worthy of the great conqueror's sarcophagus. Currently, this sarcophagus is kept in the British Museum in London.

Alexander's personality

Plutarch describes his appearance as follows:

“Alexander’s appearance is best conveyed by the statues of Lysippos, and he himself believed that only this sculptor was worthy of sculpting his image. This master was able to accurately reproduce what many of the king's successors and friends later imitated - a slight tilt of the neck to the left and a languid look. Apelles, painting Alexander in the image of the Thunderer, did not convey the skin color characteristic of the king, but depicted him darker than he actually was. Alexander was reported to be very fair, and the whiteness of his skin turned red in places, especially on his chest and face.”

Alexander did not have a heroic build and was indifferent to athletic competitions, preferring pleasure feasts and battles. The personality and character of Alexander, like any great man, cannot be accurately depicted by individual traits or single stories and historical anecdotes; they are determined only by the totality of his deeds and their relationship to the previous and subsequent eras.

Very often Alexander rushed into the thick of the battle; Plutarch lists a list of his wounds:

“At Granicus, his helmet was cut with a sword that penetrated to the hair... at Issus - with a sword in the thigh... at Gaza he was wounded with a dart in the shoulder, at Maracanda - with an arrow in the shin so that the split bone protruded from the wound; in Hyrcania - a stone to the back of the head, after which his vision deteriorated and for several days he remained in danger of blindness; in the area of ​​the Assakans - with an Indian spear in the ankle... In the area of ​​the Malls, an arrow two cubits long, piercing the armor, wounded him in the chest; there... he was hit in the neck with a mace.”

Sex life

The opinion about Alexander’s bisexuality dates back to antiquity; his close friend Hephaestion and favorite Bagoya were named as partners. The king often compared himself to Achilles, and Hephaistion to Patroclus. Moreover, in Ancient Greece, the two heroes of the Iliad were usually considered a homosexual couple. Macedonian aristocrats often practiced relationships with men even in their youth. Relatives turned a blind eye to similar relationships and usually showed concern only if the man did not express interest in women in adulthood, which created problems for procreation.

However, Plutarch in his Comparative Lives gives different facts.

One day Philoxenus, who commanded an army stationed on the seashore, wrote to Alexander that he had a certain Tarentine Theodore who wanted to sell two boys of remarkable beauty, and asked the king if he wanted to buy them. Alexander was extremely outraged by the letter and more than once complained to his friends, asking whether Philoxenus really thought so badly of him that he was offering him this abomination. He cruelly scolded Philoxen himself in a letter and ordered him to drive Theodore away along with his goods. He scolded Gagnon no less sharply, who wrote that he was going to buy and bring him the famous boy Crobilus in Corinth.

At the same time, Alexander had mistresses, three legal wives (the Bactrian princess Roxana, the daughters of the Persian kings Statira and Parisat) and two sons: Hercules from the concubine Barsina and Alexander from Roxana. In general, the king treated women with great respect, although even Alexander’s teacher Aristotle defended the subordinate position of women in society.

Religious views

Before his first successes in the fight against the Persians, Alexander actively made sacrifices to the gods, but later he ceased to treat the gods with reverence. Thus, even earlier, he had violated the ban on visiting the Delphic oracle, and mourning the death of his friend Hephaestion, Alexander equated him with heroes, organized his cult and founded two temples in his honor.

In Egypt, Alexander proclaimed himself the son of Amun-Ra and thus declared his divine identity; Egyptian priests began to honor him both as the son of god and as a god. He also visited the famous oracle of Ammon in the oasis of Siwa. These actions are usually assessed as a pragmatic political step aimed at legitimizing control over Egypt. Among the Greeks, the king’s desire to deify himself did not always find support - most Greek city-states recognized his divine essence (as the son of Zeus, the Greek analogue of Amon-Ra) only shortly before his death, including with obvious reluctance, like the Spartans (they decided: “So just as Alexander wants to be a god, let him be one”). Soon, in honor of the king, Alexandria began to be held - all-Ionian games like the Olympic ones, and shortly before his death, the ambassadors of the Greek city-states crowned him with golden wreaths, thereby symbolically recognizing his divine essence. The statement about Alexander's divine essence seriously shook the trust in him of many soldiers and commanders. In Greece, victorious commanders were sometimes given similar honors, so discontent was caused only by Alexander’s renunciation of his father and the demand for recognition of himself as an invincible god.

A later author, Josephus, recorded a legend that Yahweh appeared to Alexander in a dream, and therefore Alexander treated the Jewish high priest in Jerusalem with great respect, and also allegedly read the Book of the Prophet Daniel and recognized himself there.

Performance evaluations

A book about the righteous Viraz. Per. A. I. Kolesnikova.

Then the cursed and wicked Evil Spirit, in order to make people doubt this faith, sent the Roman Alexander, who was in Egypt, to Iran to wreak havoc and instill fear. He killed the Iranian king, destroyed the royal palace, and devastated the state. And the religious books, including the Avesta and Zend, written in gold letters on specially prepared ox skins and stored in Stakhra, where Ardashir Papakan was from, in the “Castle of Letters”, were collected and burned by that vile, vicious, sinful, malevolent Roman Alexander from Egypt . He killed many high priests and judges, Kherbeds and Mobeds, adherents of Zoroastrianism, active and wise people Iran.

Ferdowsi. Shahnameh. Per. V.V. Derzhavin.

And Ardashir opened his mouth to them:
“Hey, glorious ones with your knowledge,
Those who have comprehended with their hearts the essence of everything!
I know there is not one among you,
Who wouldn't hear what hardships I subjected you to?
We are Iskandar - an alien, of low birth!
He cast down the ancient glory into darkness,
The whole world was squeezed into a violent fist.
<...>
Remember Iskandar, who destroyed
The most glorious ones, the color of the universe destroyed.
Where are they all? Where is their majestic shine?
There is only a bad reputation left about them.
Not to a blooming paradise - to a chilling hell
They left. Haftvad will not last forever!”

The nickname “Great” has been firmly attached to Alexander since ancient times. The Roman writer Curtius in the 1st century called his work “The History of Alexander the Great” (Historiae Alexandri Magni Macedonis); Diodorus noted " greatness of glory» commander (17.1); Plutarch also called Alexander "a great warrior." The Roman historian Titus Livius reported on the high assessment given to Alexander by another famous commander in history, Hannibal:

Scipio... asked who Hannibal considered the greatest commander, and he answered that Alexander, king of the Macedonians, for with small forces he defeated countless troops and reached the most distant countries that man had never dreamed of seeing.

According to Justin, " there was not a single enemy that he did not defeat, there was not a single city that he did not take, not a single people that he did not conquer».

Napoleon Bonaparte admired not so much Alexander's military genius as his statesmanship:

What fascinates me about Alexander the Great is not his campaigns, for which we have no means of assessing, but his political instinct. His appeal to Amon became a profound political action; thus he conquered Egypt.

However, the commander’s achievements were questioned by ancient philosophers who did not see the greatness of glory in the seizure of new lands. Seneca called Alexander an unhappy man, who was driven into unknown lands by passion for ambition and cruelty, and who tried to subjugate everything except passions, for from the sciences he had to learn “how small the land is, whose insignificant part he captured.”

Alexander was assessed differently in the East. Thus, in the Zoroastrian “Book of the Righteous Viraz” (Arda Viraz Namag), Alexander is presented as a messenger of the lord of evil Angra Mainyu. Subsequently, official Persian historiographers tried to portray Alexander as a descendant of the Achaemenids in order to substantiate the theory of hereditary succession to the Persian throne. It is often assumed that Alexander hides under the name Dhul-Qarnayn in the Koran, where he is characterized as a righteous man. The pseudo-historical novel "The History of Alexander the Great" was translated into the Pahlavi language, and through it, probably, into Arabic before the appearance of the Koran, and was known in Mecca. Subsequently, the personality of Alexander was popular in the Muslim world, and they often tried to attribute non-Greek origin to him. For example, North African Arab authors traced its roots to the territory of the Maghreb, and Spanish authors to the Pyrenees. The medieval Persian poet Ferdowsi in his poem Shahnameh includes Alexander among the rulers of Iran, neutrally narrates his philosophical conversation with the sages, but through the mouth of King Ardashir he voices a negative assessment of the conqueror. The poet Nizami Ganjavi dedicated a separate poem “Iskender-name” in the “Khamsa” cycle to Alexander.

Alexander was also a popular character in Jewish tradition - particularly in the Bible, rabbinic literature and Josephus. In the Book of Daniel, which Alexander allegedly read, he is not directly named, but is seen as part of the divine plan to save the Jewish people. In the First Book of Maccabees, Alexander is presented as a moderately hostile conqueror, one of whose successors was Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the organizer of the persecution of adherents of Judaism. In rabbinic literature, the attitude towards Alexander is mixed.

The image of Alexander in historiography

Already in antiquity, two traditions stood out in the depiction of Alexander: apologetic and critical; the first was represented by the works of Plutarch and Arrian, the second by Diodorus Siculus, Pompey Trogus, Quintus Curtius Rufus. As prof. Y. Belokh: “Of all the heroes of antiquity, the great Alexander aroused the greatest interest in an educated society, even in times of decline.”

Attempts to study the activities of Alexander were made during the Renaissance, but the systematic study of the life and work of the commander began only in the 19th century with the advent of historical scientific schools. Most studies of the 19th and early 20th centuries about the life and work of Alexander are characterized by an idealization of the commander. They were started by the author of the fundamental “History of Hellenism” I. Droyzen. The author of the “History of Greek Culture”, Jacob Burckhardt, J.P. Magaffie, J. Rade, P. Jouguet and others also praised Alexander’s activities. Arnold Toynbee considered Alexander a genius who single-handedly created the Hellenistic world. Alexander dedicated to the art of war separate work American military historian Theodore Dodge, who sought to draw lessons from Alexander's campaigns for modern times. To the greatest extent, the apologetic tradition received support in Germany, where attention to his personality was especially great.

In the book of the famous German teacher and popularizer of historical science G.V. Stohl “Heroes of Greece in War and Peace” (1866), Alexander was portrayed as a successful commander and wise statesman. Translated into Russian at the end of the 19th century, G. V. Shtol’s book enjoyed great success among Russian gymnasium and student youth.

Researchers of the late 19th - early 20th centuries are characterized by extreme Eurocentrism and justification of the aggressive policy of the Macedonian king: for Burckhardt, the greatness of Alexander is determined by the spread of Greek culture and civilization among the barbarian peoples of the East, and for Jouguet his conquests are assessed in line with the concept of “beneficent imperialism” and are presented as unconditionally progressive phenomenon. Alexander was considered the herald of the “brotherhood of peoples” by Mikhail Rostovtsev and some other representatives of Anglo-American historiography. Sometimes similar views persisted later: in particular, throughout Greek historiography of the 20th century, Alexander, as a rule, was presented as the bearer of high culture and the leader of Western civilization in its eternal struggle with the East.

After World War II, major studies appeared that critically assessed the activities of the commander. As a politician guided only by cold calculation, Alexander was presented by British historians Robert David Milnes and Peter Green (in 2010, the latter’s monograph was translated into Russian). Pierre Briand's monograph focuses on opposition to Alexander. The ambivalence of Alexander’s actions was shown by Fritz Schachermayr (his monograph on Alexander was repeatedly republished in Russian). In his opinion, Alexander and his father Philip represent completely different types of historical figures - unbridled and rational, respectively. Schachermayr also blames Alexander for destroying his father’s work in bringing the Macedonians closer to the rest of the Greek world. Among the case studies, Alfred R. Bellinger's two-volume work on the coinage of the Macedonian king with an excursion into his economic policies stands out.

In Soviet historiography, the study of Alexander the Great was carried out primarily by S. I. Kovalev (published a monograph about him in 1937), A. S. Shofman (published the two-volume “History of Ancient Macedonia” in 1960 and 1963, and a separate work “Eastern Politics Alexander the Great” in 1976 and articles) and G. A. Koshelenko (“Greek polis in the Hellenistic East” in 1979 and a number of articles).

Memory of Alexander

Sources

Alexander was accompanied on his campaigns by many intellectuals, including the historian Callisthenes and several philosophers. Many of them subsequently published memoirs about their great contemporary. Thus, Alexander’s courtier Haret of Mytilene wrote the “History of Alexander” in ten books, which described primarily Alexander’s personal life, but was preserved only in minor fragments. His work was not structured according to a chronological principle, but was rather a collection of anecdotes. Similar works were left behind by Medeas and Polyclitus from Larissa and Ephippus from Olynthos. In addition, the Cynic philosopher Onesicritus from Astypalaia, who traveled with the army headquarters all the way to India, described in detail the king’s conquests. Onesicritus was particularly interested in India, and he described in detail the types of local animals and plants, and the customs of the peoples. Despite the abundance of fables and fictitious stories, in ancient times Onesicritus’s information served as one of the most important sources when geographers described India (in particular, Onesicritus widely uses Strabo). Nearchus, who commanded the fleet upon his return from India, also left memories of the war.

A completely different fate befell the staff historiographer Callisthenes of Olynthos - in 327 he was executed on charges of preparing a conspiracy. Because of this, the last of his detailed records describe the events of the Battle of Gaugamela. His “Acts of Alexander” had a pronounced apologetic character and was intended as a justification of the king before the Greek audience. However, already in ancient times, the unfinished work of Callisthenes was criticized for bias and distortion of facts by Timaeus of Tauromenius and Polybius. Not immediately after Alexander’s death, the commander Ptolemy, who by that time had already become the ruler of Egypt, systematized his memories. Ptolemy created the image of Alexander as a brilliant commander. It is assumed that due to Ptolemy's military background, his writing contained many precise details related to military actions. The engineer (possibly an architect) Aristobulus, who was in his troops, did not immediately write the history of Alexander’s campaigns, in which he paid a lot of attention to the geographical and ethnographic description of the conquered lands. Although Aristobulus began writing history at the age of 84, he accurately recorded all distances, amounts of money, and days and months of events. It is known that the last two works contained a wealth of factual material. With the exception of a few fragments, all works written by Alexander's contemporaries have been lost.

Only in small fragments has the work of Clitarchus, a younger contemporary of Alexander, survived to this day, who probably did not participate in the campaigns with him, but tried to put together scattered eyewitness accounts and already published works. His work “On Alexander” consisted of at least 12 books and was close in style to a heroic novel. Despite the criticism of Clitarchus' work by ancient historians, his work was very popular in antiquity. The formation of a cycle of fantastic legends associated with Alexander dates back to this time, although legends around the personality of the great conqueror began to appear during his lifetime. Together they created a tradition of true and fictitious information about Alexander, which in historiography is known as the “Vulgate”. The “Ephemerides” (records of the tsar’s court journal) and “Hipomnemata” (notes by Alexander himself with plans for further conquests) have also not survived. Ancient authors often quoted Alexander's correspondence with friends, relatives and officials, but most of these letters are later forgeries.

Due to the fact that interest in Alexander’s personality did not fade, the Greeks, and then the Romans, wrote about him much later, relying on the works of their predecessors. It is these writings that have partially survived to this day and serve as the main sources for studying the life and activities of the king. Most of them relied in one way or another on the work of Clitarchus and, to some extent, on the works of Timagenes. Works from the Alexander-friendly tradition include Diodorus Siculus's Bibliotheca Historia, Quintus Curtius Rufus's History of Alexander, and Pompey Trogus's History of Philip (the latter work preserved in an abridged version compiled by Justin). Largely independent of this tradition is Arrian, who is considered the most reliable source on the life of Alexander. Of great value is the biography of Alexander in the Comparative Lives of Plutarch, who selected materials in accordance with his ideas about the role of the individual in history.

Medieval novels about Alexander. Alexander in European folklore

E. A. Kostyukhin about the medieval perception of Alexander.

In the early Western European Middle Ages, history was rethought and acquired a new pattern, the past turned out to be closely connected with the present and similar to it. So, Priam is called the first king of the Franks, Alexander the Great is called the Greek, and Caesar is called the Roman Charlemagne, they walk around the world with twelve peers and smash the Saracens.

After the death of the king, the Romance of Alexander (History of Alexander the Great) was written. The time of formation of its final edition is unclear - it dates back to the times from the reign of Ptolemy II (3rd century BC) to the beginning of the 3rd century AD. e. The novel is fantastic in nature, and it was compiled based on materials from historical works, memoirs and semi-legendary tales. Many of the events that are described in the “Novel” as real are found among ancient historians only as voiced plans. Moreover, the “Novel” was written based on even more materials than the five surviving works about Alexander. The author of "Novel" is unknown. In one of the manuscripts, Callisthenes is named as the author, but he could not write this work because Alexander executed him, and therefore the conditional author of the work is sometimes designated as Pseudo-Callisthenes. There is an assumption that the first versions of the novel, before final processing, appeared in the East, where there was an urgent need to justify the conquests of Alexander and the establishment of Greek rule there. Factual information in the novel is often distorted, and the chronology is often broken. In its classic form, the novel consisted of 10 parts, although in earlier versions there were practically no themes related to Greece.

Even in antiquity, the novel was translated into Latin by Julius Valerius Polemius; followed by translations into other languages. In the 10th century, the Archpriest of Naples Leo translated the Byzantine version of the late edition of Pseudo-Callisthenes from Greek into the Latin language more common in Europe. Lev's work was called "History of Battles" (lat. Historia de preliis).

Around 1130, the cleric Lamprecht of Trier wrote the Song of Alexander, based on a similar but almost extinct work by Alberic of Besançon. This work is not yet knightly novel, but in some aspects anticipates it. Lamprecht's work contains a number of fantastic innovations in the legend of Alexander, which existed in Europe at that time: the ruler is dressed in armor tempered in dragon blood; his army reached the place where the sky meets the earth; along the way he met people with six arms and flies the size of doves; finally, Alexander tries to impose tribute on the angels in paradise. Lamprecht’s “Songs” are also characterized by a religious mood: the author preaches the ideals of asceticism, calls for renunciation of worldly vanity and repentance of sins.

Plots related to Alexander's campaigns were found in European chivalric novels in different countries(in particular, in England, Germany, Spain, France, Czech Republic). In the first half of the 12th century, Alberic of Pisançon wrote a novel in Old French, since there were a very large number of people who did not speak Latin. It bore the imprint of new trends in literature and was close to the chivalric romance. At the end of the 12th century, Walter of Chatillon wrote the poem “Alexandridea” in Latin. During this period, several more revisions of the legend of Alexander arose, the largest of which (16 thousand verses) belongs to Alexander of Paris (de Berne). In the 13th century, based on the poems about Alexander, prose novels appeared, the first translations and further adaptations, which were very popular in medieval Europe. The Old French “Roman of Alexander” was written in a special twelve-syllable syllabic verse, which later received the name “Alexandrian”. In later editions of the novel, an idealized image of Alexander as a courageous but humane commander finally emerged. For a long time this character was a model of a king-knight for European culture and was included, in particular, in the list of nine worthy ones (other righteous pagans were Hector and Gaius Julius Caesar). In various versions of the novel there are allusions to events relevant to their time: for example, the Czech poetic “Alexandride” of the early 14th century contains many references to Czech reality, to the dominance of the Germans and German culture in Prague.

However, along with the novels about Alexander, there were other works that supplemented the legend about him with new fictional details. For example, in the 13th century, Henri d'Andely created "Lay of Aristotle", which is based on the popular legend about Aristotle and Phyllis, Alexander's mistress. The German "Imperial Chronicle" of the mid-12th century indicates that the German tribe of the Saxons fought as part of Alexander's army .

The novel about Alexander was known back in Kievan Rus- a translation made in the 12th or even 11th century from one of the Byzantine editions is contained in a number of manuscripts. At the same time, some episodes from the Bible and Greek literature that were absent in the Byzantine editions of the novel were introduced into the text. Around 1490-91, the monk of the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery Efrosin included in a collection of secular stories a translation of one version of the novel, known as “Serbian Alexandria”. According to Ya. S. Lurie, this is “ typical medieval chivalric romance" It is not known where this novel came from in the monastery, but for a number of reasons the source is called the South Slavic edition of the novel, probably compiled in Dalmatia from Greek and Western European versions. When translated into Russian (probably Efrosin was only a compiler, editor and copyist, but not a translator), South Slavic words incomprehensible to the reader were replaced, some plot motifs were changed, and the main part of the novel was divided into legends. In addition, due to insufficient familiarity with the plots of the Trojan War (the Iliad in Rus' was often considered a book about the destruction of Jerusalem), numerous references to Homer were shortened. The compilers of “Serbian Alexandria” artificially Christianized the image of the great conqueror, attributed to him sayings in the Christian spirit and presented him as a fighter for the faith. In the 16th century, “Serbian Alexandria” was practically forgotten in the Muscovite state, and only in the 17th century did it become widespread again. At the same time, translations from Western European editions of the novel, made in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, appeared.

The novel came to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the form of translations of Western European editions from Latin into Old Belarusian and immediately became one of the most popular secular works. Thus, the Belarusian pioneer printer of the early 16th century, Francis Skorina, in the author’s preface to the Bible, recommended reading not “Alexandria” and “Troy,” but the biblical books of Judges and Maccabees, because, in his words, “ you will find more and fairer in them" Later, in addition to translations of Western European versions of the novel from Latin, copies of Serbian Alexandria circulated, and then compilations appeared that combined the two traditions. Thanks to the popularity of the novel, some stories from it found their way into Belarusian folk tales.

Alexander in fine arts

Subjects related to the life of Alexander were used in the fine and decorative arts of the Middle Ages. During the Renaissance and later, they were developed in paintings and tapestries. The greatest interest for the masters was not the real exploits of the king, but his fictional travels and adventures. In addition, in France, Alexander was depicted in the paintings of some churches, including the cathedrals of Nîmes and Chalons, as a defender of religion. Since the 15th century, Alexander began to be depicted on playing cards as the king of clubs. Pope Paul III, who received the name Alexander at baptism, decorated the Castel Sant'Angelo with wall paintings based on the life of the king and minted coins with his image.

As a rule, Alexander was depicted as a young and eager man wearing a helmet or a full set of armor. Most often, the masters were inspired by stories about the taming of Bucephalus, the Battle of Issus, the capture of the mortally wounded Darius, as well as the episode about the capture of Darius’ family by the Macedonian army. Also popular were stories about the pardon of the Theban woman Timoclea, the cutting of the Gordian knot, the healing of Alexander by his physician Philip, and the wedding of the king with Roxana.

Alexander in European culture of modern times

With the spread of absolutism in Europe and the spread of knowledge about antiquity, those close to the monarchs compared the kings with the great rulers of antiquity. In particular, court poets and painters of Louis XIV often depicted him in the image of Alexander the Great. In 1765, Voltaire compared Catherine II with the queen of the Amazons, hinting at the legendary meeting of the commander with her, and “ Catherine, according to Voltaire’s logic, is so great that the roles should be reversed - Alexander the Great himself would have to seek Catherine’s attention».

The events associated with the collapse of Alexander's empire were reflected in the twelve-volume gallant-heroic novel Cassandra by Gautier de Calprened, popular in the 17th century.

In the 17th century, plots related to the life of the commander were reflected in the French theater: the tragedies “The Death of Alexander” by Alexander Hardy and “Alexander the Great” by Jean Racine were created and staged. The plot of the latter work was based on information from Plutarch and Curtius Rufus, and its success was facilitated by the favorable attitude of Louis XIV: the king, having viewed the production, found many similarities with himself in the theatrical Alexander. The production of Alexander the Great also marked a break between Racine and Corneille: Racine took the production from Molière's troupe and gave it to the rival troupe of the Hôtel de Burgundy. There is a well-known phrase attributed to Peter I: “My brother Charles fancies himself Alexander, but he will not find Darius in me” (meaning Charles XII).

In 1899, the poet Valery Bryusov wrote one of his most famous poems, “Alexander the Great” (“The tireless striving from fate to another destiny...”).

Alexander in the Eastern tradition

The legends about Alexander (Iskander) became widespread in the East. Among the most popular stories is the legend of Alexander's two horns, which he carefully hid from everyone, including barbers; one of the barbers escaped and told the secret to the reed; then a pipe is made from the reed, which tells everyone the secret of the conqueror. The appearance of this plot was often associated with the Greek myth of Midas, but in the middle of the 20th century, assumptions appeared about the Greeks borrowing a similar tale widespread in the East and about the origin of the plot without their participation. In Syrian literature, there were several tales about Alexander, who is presented as a rural hero-hero, who through strength and courage acquired the best horse, the best sword and the most beautiful girl. The common nickname “Two-horned” there is explained by the fact that Alexander “ attached two swords to his head like horns and struck enemies with them" In Georgian and Tajik folklore, the name Alexander is associated with the abolition of the ancient custom of gerontocide (the killing of old people who have reached a certain age). In the folklore of a number of peoples, the story of Alexander’s descent to the seabed is known, and in Azerbaijani folklore, Alexander sets fire to the sea so that the king of the sea will pay him tribute - miraculous gifts.

In the Middle Ages, “The Romance of Alexander” by Pseudo-Callisthenes was translated into Coptic, Syriac, Middle Persian, Armenian (5th century), Ge’ez (late 14th century), possibly Arabic and other languages. Many of them bore little resemblance to the original - for example, in Syrian literature there were two completely different versions of the novel, and the Ethiopian version of the novel is largely an original work that can hardly be called a translation.

In the poem “Shahnameh”, Ferdowsi depicts the image of Alexander as a conqueror, who changes under the influence of conversations with priests, brahmans, philosophers and due to acquaintance with the “flourishing city”.

The classic of Persian literature Nizami Ganjavi dedicated his last poem “Iskander-name” to Alexander. The work is structured according to principles close to the European chivalric romance, but Nizami consistently pursues his philosophical line, and Alexander conducts learned conversations with Greek and Indian sages. In addition, there is a utopian element in the poem: while traveling to the north, Alexander finds a land where there is an ideal society without supreme power, poverty and vices

In Turkish literature, the court poet Ahmedi was the first to use the plot of Alexander in his essay “Iskander-name”. His poem is considered both as an imitation of Nizami’s poem of the same name, and as a response to it. the sources of his information about Alexander are Nizami, Ferdowsi, and folk legends. In Ahmedi's work, as in other legends about Alexander, there are many anachronisms: for example, it is indicated that not only Aristotle, but also Plato and Socrates and Hippocrates, who lived at other times, were involved in the upbringing of the young king; it also tells about Alexander's visit to Mecca and Baghdad, which was under the rule of the caliphs. In general, the fantastic and adventure element in Ahmedi's poem is much stronger than in his two predecessors, although it also contains encyclopedic information from various fields of knowledge. The work was strongly influenced by Sufism, which was expressed in the coexistence of a description of events with philosophical overtones. There was also a prose version of the poem, more accessible in language and content, created by Hamzawi, Ahmedi’s brother.

The Central Asian poet Alisher Navoi described his ideal in his work “Iskander’s Wall” government system against the backdrop of fantastic stories about the life of Alexander (the search for living water, the construction of a wall to protect against barbarians, and others).

Alexander in modern culture

In the 20th-21st centuries, the rich and multifaceted image of Alexander was interpreted depending on the needs of society. However, what was new at this time was an attempt to completely revise the role of Alexander in history. Between the First and Second World Wars, the very idea of ​​conquest accompanied by war came under active criticism. This anti-militaristic tendency was most clearly manifested in the work of Bertolt Brecht. In particular, in the 1920s and 30s, he wrote several poems that criticized the commander’s excessive efforts to conquer the Earth and pointed out the attribution of the merits of the entire Greek army to one single commander. Finally, in the radio play “The Interrogation of Lucullus” (1940-41), Brecht defends the view that Alexander’s glory means nothing in heaven.

In the 1930s, the Soviet writer V. G. Yan wrote the story “Lights on the Mounds.” In the spirit characteristic of his time, he turned the noble Sogdian Spitamen into a poor caravan driver and painted a picture of the class struggle and the struggle of the peoples of Central Asia for national liberation. He also pointed out that Alexander was by no means a great leader: he committed both “progressive” actions and reprehensible ones. In addition, Alexander is the central character of the poem “Water of Immortality” by L. I. Oshanin. The author tries to be impartial about Alexander, but points out the positive and negative aspects of his conquests.

Alexander was often interpreted from a modern perspective as a harbinger of globalization and anti colonialism (cf. the book of the German historian S. Fischer-Fabian “Alexander the Great. The Dream of the Brotherhood of Nations”); he was included in various lists of the greatest commanders in the first positions. Maurice Druon's fictionalized biography of the king, Alexander the Great, or the Romance of God, contains elements of psychoanalysis and mysticism, making it stand out among other popular biographies of the commander. Professional historian Arnold Toynbee attempted to describe the hypothetical future of the Macedonian Empire if Alexander had lived 36 years longer.

Alexander is also the hero of many novels: I. A. Efremova (“Thais of Athens”), Mary Renault (“Divine Flame”, “Persian Boy”, “Funeral Games”), David Gemmell (“Macedonian Legion”, “The Dark Prince” ), Lev Oshanin “Water of Immortality (novel in ballads)”, Yavdata Ilyasov “Sogdiana”, Mikhail Volokhov (“Diogenes. Alexander. Corinth.”), Valerio Massimo Manfredi (“Alexander the Great. Son of a Dream”, “Alexander the Great. Sands” Amon", "Alexander the Great. The Limits of the World"), James Rollins ("Bones of the Magi"), etc.

In children's literature, Alexander is usually traditionally presented as greatest commander of all times and peoples.

In cinema

Despite Alexander's popularity, a relatively small number of films have been made about him.

• "Alexander the Great" (USA, 1956) - Hollywood peplum of 1956.
• Alexander the Great (USA, 1968) was an unsuccessful television film that was ranked 34th among TV Guide's 50 worst films.
• “Alexander the Great” (Greece, 1980) - the image of Alexander was used in the phantasmagoria about the events of the 20th century by Theodoros Angelopoulos.
• “Alexander” (USA, 2004) - a film by Oliver Stone - the film is not “biographical” in the full sense of the word, since there is neither a coherent narrative about the life of the commander, nor many important moments of his biography, which is why a number of Alexander’s actions seem irrational to the audience . According to Colin Farrell, who plays Alexander, this was a consequence of the director’s position: Oliver Stone left only part of the episodes of the original script “to tell the story as he wanted.” Overall, the film reproduces the heroic myth of Alexander with special attention on his campaigns and conquests. The focus on the king's Oedipus complex and his fear of women was probably intended to make Alexander more relatable to modern audiences using well-known Freudian motifs.

In animation

• "Alexander" (Japan, 1999) is an anime series based on the light novel by Aramata Hiroshi.
• "Alexander - The Movie" (Japan, 2000) - a compilation of the first four episodes of the original series.
• "Alexander the Great" (Italy, 2006) - full-length computer animated film.
• Fate/Zero (Japan, 2011) is an anime series created by ufotable studio based on the light novel of the same name by Gen Urobuchi. Alexander the Great (Iskander) is introduced as the King of Conquerors, a servant of the Rider class.

In music

• "Alexander the Great" is a song by Iron Maiden from the album Somewhere in Time.
• “Alexander” is a song by Sergei Babkin from the album “Motor”.
• “Alexander” is a song by the group “Snega”.

Computer games

Alexander is a character in a number of computer games:

• Alexander,
• Rome: Total War - Alexander,
• Civilization IV: Warlords,
• Civilization VI
• Empire Earth,
• Rise of Nations: Thrones and Patriots,
• Rise and Fall: Civilizations at War,
• Call to Power II.

Other

• The Alexander crater on the Moon is named after the commander.

Name: Alexander the Great (Alexander III the Great)

Years of life: presumably July 20/23 or October 6/10, 356 BC. e. - June 10, 323 BC. e.

State: Ancient Greece, Macedonia

Field of activity: Politics, army

Greatest Achievement: Conquered most of Europe, as well as part of Asia. Became the founder of a huge empire.

In 336 BC Emperor Alexander of Macedonia was one of the most outstanding generals in history. In just eleven years of rule, he created a powerful empire, conquering Asia Minor, Egypt, Persia and other countries. He reached India, but was forced to return from there because the army faced great problems.

The fusion of Greek and Eastern cultural heritage under the reign of Alexander the Great formed the "Hellenistic Age", which shaped the worldview for the next 300 years. He died in Babylon at the age of 33.

Alexander III was Emperor of Macedonia and conquered a vast territory in just eleven years, which by today's standards corresponds roughly to the following modern countries: Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Egypt, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan. He was one of the most distinguished generals and statesmen in history; after his death he was given the nickname "The Great".

Alexander the Great was an outstanding personality, characterized by strategic flair and an indomitable will to absolute power. A brilliant commander, he devoted his life to conquest, providing his soldiers with a model of courage and energy. He could be as generous as he was cruel to followers and opponents, as honest as he was cold-blooded.

Childhood and youth of Alexander the Great

Alexander was born in 356 BC. in the Macedonian capital of that time - Pella. He was the son of Philip II, King of Macedonia and Olympias, Princess of Epirus. Philip sent thirteen-year-old Alexander to Mezha, where he received his education from 342-340 BC. by the Greek philosopher Aristotle.

He gained knowledge in rhetoric, literature, geography and military affairs, this instilled in him a love of science, medicine and philosophy.

Aristotle had a strong influence on Alexander, which was crucial to his intellectual development and worship of Greek culture. From later campaigns, in which many scholars accompanied Alexander, he regularly sent Aristotle new knowledge about foreign animals, plants, waters and countries.

However, Alexander's childhood and youth were not carefree: his father was mostly absent due to constant military campaigns, and Alexander was influenced by his domineering and strong-willed mother. She wanted to see Alexander on the royal throne. For this reason, she even could not resist and poisoned her half-brother Archidaios. Olympia hated her husband because he married other women while married to her.

His last wife was Cleopatra, who was killed in cold blood after his death by Olympia. There were also conflicts between father and son, which occurred when Alexander's father was married to Cleopatra in 337 BC. There were escalations. Alexander was expelled and fled; but the succession to the throne remained predetermined even after a later quarrel with his father.

Alexander ascends the throne and becomes commander-in-chief of the army

From a minor state before Philip II was assassinated in 336 BC, Macedonia became a powerful empire with strong institutions - thanks to the discovery of gold, military campaigns and Philip's reforms. Philip II formed the League of Corinth.

After Philip's death, Alexander strengthened his position on the throne by killing or expelling all his rivals. He also succeeded as an army commander and head of the Corinthian Congress.

Rebellious barbarian tribes threatened order, but Alexander crushed the Thracian and Illyrian revolts in 355 BC. In the Balkan campaign, when Thebes refused to recognize Alexander's hegemony, he destroyed the city and enslaved all the inhabitants.

Campaigns of Alexander the Great

The Corinthian Congress commissioned Alexander to wage war against the Persian Empire. Revenge for the destruction of Athens by the Persians in 480 BC and the liberation of the coastal cities of Asia Minor from Persian rule was reasonable and legitimate. Therefore, this war was called the “Panelin vendetta.”

With an army of 35,000 men, Alexander entered Asia Minor in 334 BC. Already the first battle with the Persian army on the Granik River brought the liberation of the Ionian coast and cities of Greek origin. Alexander moved to Gordion, the capital of Phrygia (near present-day Ankara). Events took place here that were later called the Gordian Knot, which Alexander the Great managed to cut with a sword. According to legend, the one who managed to untie the complex knot should become the ruler of a world empire.

Alexander moved further south and met in 333 BC at Issus with the army of the Persian king Darius, who chose to fight, but lost the battle. He took everyone prisoner royal family, but Alexander was gentle with the prisoners. He married a Persian princess. Darius promised Alexander the western half of his empire, but Alexander did not agree to this peace offer.

He moved to the Syrian coast, subduing in 332 BC, after several months of siege, the naval fortifications of Tire and Palestine. Egypt could have been taken by Alexander without a fight. He founded the city of Alexandria in 331 BC, which for many centuries was the most important trading center in the world at that time. The priests declared him pharaoh and recognized him as the son of the Egyptian sun god Amun. After Alexander was named pharaoh and son of God, he established his totalitarian regime and absolute power, which did not receive the approval of the Macedonians and Greeks.

Meanwhile, King Darius assembled a stronger army. At the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC, Alexander the Great finally defeated Darius, but he managed to escape again. Alexander proclaimed himself "Conqueror of Asia" and took the Persian capital cities of Babylon, Susa and Persepolis with all their untold riches without a fight. He burned the royal palace in Persepolis in revenge for the destruction of the Acropolis. Alexander continued to pursue Darius, but he was soon killed and buried with royal honors.

With the restoration of the coastal cities and the destruction of the palace at Persepolis, Alexander ended the "Panhellenic vendetta" in 330 BC. However, his military campaign was not over yet: he intended to completely conquer the Persian Empire. First, he appointed Persian nobles as governors and accepted Persian soldiers into his army for the first time. After he demanded that his followers bow before him as a god-king, Macedonian conspiracies and uprisings began against him. Alexander executed the rebels.

He conquered eastern Persia and Bactria (modern eastern Iran and Afghanistan) and married the Bactrian princess Roxana in 327 BC.

Alexander the Great wanted to create an empire from Gibraltar to the eastern edge of the world. He led his troops further and further, through the Hindu Kush to the Indus (in modern Pakistan). A powerful battle took place on the Hydaspes River in 326 BC against the Indian king Porus and his troops, whose tactics were unfamiliar. Despite heavy losses in Alexander's army, Porus' troops were defeated.

By this time, Alexander's soldiers had covered a distance of about 18,000 km. Further advancement was hardly possible due to prolonged rains, and the soldiers made superhuman efforts: clothes and boots were frayed and constantly wet, wet food, weapons, horses and carts with supplies became unusable.

Unusual weather, difficulties in movement and the vast territories of India undermined the morale of the army; the soldiers no longer wanted to continue marching and fighting. Finally, the exhausted soldiers began to mutiny and forced Alexander to turn home in 325 BC.

Emperor Alexander the Great managed to reach the Indus delta, then the army split into three parts and returned to Persia: one part went by sea; the second returned with part of the troops by land; Alexander the Great led the third and largest part of the army, leading it through the desert of Gedrosia (today Balochistan). The Emperor of Macedonia reached his destination after going through an indescribably difficult path with his army, so difficult that most of the soldiers did not survive.

Mass wedding in Susa

The mass marriage of Susa served Alexander's policy of fusion: his goal was to overcome the ethnic, cultural and political divisions of the Macedonian-Greek as well as Persian peoples of his vast empire. By marrying 10,000 Macedonians with girls from noble Persian families, he wanted to reconcile and unite the two peoples. Alexander the Great himself, starting in 327 BC, was married to Roxana, and also married Statira, daughter of Darius.

Alexander completely rebuilt the empire and thus opened up vast territories and trade opportunities for the Greeks: the imperial government and army gave the Persians and Macedonians equal rights. Through the countless newly created cities where Alexander settled with the Greeks and to which he gave a democratic constitution on the Athenian model, he strengthened the cohesion of the country. The development of the road network and Alexander's new monetary units as a single currency facilitated world trade. The language was standardized (Greek as the official language). But the innovations of the Macedonians were perceived by the Persians as humiliation, and were met with fierce resistance.

Alexander completed his plan to unite the peoples in Babylon and prepared new plans for the conquest of Arabia and Carthage. But he was unable to realize the plan, since he died in 323 BC in Babylon from a fever.

The empire of Alexander the Great gradually disintegrated due to the struggle of his successors for power in the empire. However, Greek culture became more widespread. The fusion of Greek culture with Eastern culture (in language, religion and way of life), which occurred during the reign of Alexander, is called “Hellenism.”

For modern man IV century BC e. seems like a ancient, hoary old time, a time when people lived in terrible living conditions, having neither electricity nor mobile communications, neither digital technology nor other achievements of civilization. Medicine was at a low level, life expectancy left much to be desired, and the person himself was absolutely unprotected from the arbitrariness of the powers that be due to the lack of competent laws and an effective judicial system.

However, the inhabitants of those distant times apparently felt quite comfortable in the world around them. They worked, raised children, and apparently thought life was wonderful and wonderful. In addition to completely natural peaceful activities, these people did not disdain wars in order to become famous on the battlefields and quickly improve their financial situation.

There have always been many fortune hunters. The names of most of them have sunk into eternity, leaving no memory of themselves; those who are remembered even today are only a few. One such person is Alexander the Great (the Great). This name has survived two and a half thousand years and at all times was one of the most popular among all those who considered themselves to be the enlightened part of humanity.

Alexander's brilliant military career began in 338 BC. e. At this time he was only 18 years old. He glorified himself at the Battle of Chaeronea, making a significant contribution to the defeat of the allied forces of Athens and Boeotia. After this, for 15 whole years, he had no equal among the skilled commanders of that distant century. An insidious fate cut short the life of this extraordinary personality in the prime of his life. Alexander the Great died in June 323 BC. e., having lived just over a month before turning 33 years old.

The death of a man who was extremely popular, and even at such a young age, has always caused a lot of guesswork and speculation. The official version says that the great conqueror died of malaria, but there are numerous opinions that view such a sudden death from a different angle. The words came from the lips of many people: poison, poisoned, killed by envious people, destroyed by secret enemies.

Thus, we can say that for almost 25 centuries there has been a mystery about the death of Alexander the Great. Is it possible to solve it? To do this, first of all, you need to have an idea about the personality of the great conqueror, about his environment, about the policy that he pursued, strengthening his power and might.

Alexander was born in July 356 BC. e. in the city of Pella - the capital of Macedonia. He was born in royal family, which greatly contributed to the development of his talents.

From 343 BC. e. his education was carried out by the famous philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BC), a student of the same Plato who first told people about Atlantis. So the boy received an excellent education, and we can say with all responsibility that he later became one of the most enlightened monarchs of his time.

The young man was taught the art of war by his father, King Philip II of Macedonia (382-336 BC). He was a powerful, decisive man, striving by all means to strengthen his state and expand its borders. It was under him that a strong ground army, a powerful fleet was created, and the famous Macedonian phalanx was significantly reorganized and improved.

It was Philip II who created a unified state, uniting scattered cities under his rule and thereby preparing a reliable springboard for his son. The latter very effectively took advantage of his father’s achievements, using the military power he inherited to conquer numerous lands and spaces beyond the control of the human imagination of that time.

Alexander became king of Macedonia after the death of Philip II (he was killed by his bodyguard) in 336 BC. e. A few months later he went on a campaign to the north-west of the Balkan Peninsula. Numerous tribes of Getae and Triballi lived here. Having very quickly broken their resistance, the young king annexed these lands to his possessions, thereby proving to those around him that he was in no way inferior to his late father.

The young commander was unable to rest after a successful and short-term military campaign. The messengers brought the news that the cities of Central Greece, annexed to Macedonia over the past five years, had rebelled. Apparently the death of the tough and powerful king instilled hope for liberation in the hearts of their inhabitants. But these people did not take into account the fact that the son turned out to be a match for his father.

Alexander with a small army “walked like a tornado” through the rebellious lands. He had no mercy for the rebels and quickly showed everyone that the power in Macedonia had not weakened at all, but rather even strengthened and became even more ruthless and harsh.

Very soon, order and peace were established in all corners of the kingdom. Both friends and enemies felt the “heavy” hand of the young monarch. It would seem that the king could calm down for a while and enjoy the benefits that unlimited power gives. Probably everyone in his place would have done this, but Alexander the Great fell out of the ordinary ranks of people.

He acted completely differently. Already at the beginning of 334 BC. e. The young king, leaving his father's friend Antipater (397-319 BC) as governor in Pella, crossed the Hellespont (Dardanelles) with a strong army and ended up on the territory of the Persian kingdom. The Achaemenids fielded a large armed army against the invader, but it was completely defeated in the battle on the Granik River.

This battle became decisive in the struggle for Asia Minor. The coastal Greek cities, languishing under the yoke of the Persians, joyfully greeted the liberators. They expel the satraps of King Darius III (383-330 BC) and open the gates to the Macedonian troops. In almost a few months, the lands of Lydia were cleared of the Persians and recognized the power of Alexander the Great.

A young and ambitious monarch, inspired by the first serious victory over strong enemy, moves with his army deep into Persian territory. They advance to meet him powerful forces Persians They are headed by King Darius III himself.

The decisive battle takes place near the city of Issus in the fall of 333 BC. e. Here the Achaemenids have a threefold advantage in combat strength, but the military genius of Alexander the Great prevails over the enemy’s manpower. The Persians suffer a terrible defeat; Darius III flees in shame.

After this victory, almost the entire Mediterranean coast came under the control of the Greek-Macedonian army. Alexander shows himself not only to be a brilliant commander, but also a wise, far-sighted politician. He turns his army to Egypt, also languishing under the rule of the Achaemenid dynasty.

Having appeared in the kingdom of the ancient pyramids as a liberator, the young king enlists the support of the priestly nobility. This is not manifested in simple obedience and loyalty - Alexander the Great is declared the son of the god Amun and the pharaoh of Egypt. Thus a brilliant commander turns from common man into a celestial being, which brings confusion and confusion into the ranks of his opponents. Fighting against an ordinary mortal is all right, but opposing a god is tantamount to suicide.

It was from this time that the young Macedonian king began to move away from his circle. The military leaders Antipater, Ptolemy Lagus, Perdiccas, Philotas, Parmenion, Cleitus the Black, and Hephaestion, loyal to him, begin to feel the despotic nature of Alexander. The same one, apparently sincerely believing in his divine destiny, does not notice the growing discontent.

This dissatisfaction soon manifests itself in very specific actions. A conspiracy is brewing, with Philotas at its head. He is the son of Parmenion, an experienced military leader whom the king trusts unconditionally. However, for now everything is going well, since the army is returning to Persia again, where Darius III has gathered another strong army.

The decisive battle takes place near the village of Gaugamela in early October 331 BC. e. Here the Persians suffer a final and unconditional defeat. The descendant of the invincible Cyrus and Artaxerxes shamefully flees from the battlefield. However, this does not save the Persian king. Soon he is killed by his own satrap Bess and proclaims himself king of Persia. However, after being in this capacity for only a year, he himself is captured by the Macedonians and undergoes a painful execution.

After the death of Darius III, Alexander the Great occupied the capital of the Persian kingdom, the city of Babylon, and proclaimed himself the successor of the Achaemenid dynasty. Here he creates a lush courtyard, accepting noble Persians in addition to the Greeks and Macedonians.

The young king is moving further and further away from his true friends and admirers. The glitter and tinsel of power finally turn him into an eastern monarch with the habits of a ruthless dictator. This is unacceptable for Hellenes brought up in a free and democratic Greece. The extinct conspiracy is gaining strength again.

Philotas unites getters around himself - young men from noble families. They plan to kill the king, but there is a traitor in their midst. Already on a trip to Central Asia Alexander learns about the plans of the conspirators. By his order, Philots is killed, and his father Parmenion is also killed. But their death does not improve the situation. The discontent of the highest Macedonian and Greek nobility had already taken deep roots. Maybe the mystery of the death of Alexander the Great should be viewed from this angle?

Be that as it may, the king is lucky so far. He continues to successfully carry out military expansion, adding more and more territories to his empire. Along the way, he suppresses another conspiracy, the so-called “pages’ conspiracy.” These were again noble Macedonian youth who carried the personal guard of the king. At the head of these conspirators was the page Hermolai. He is executed, and a relatively calm period ensues, which is the calm before the storm.

The storm comes at the end of 328 BC. uh, when Alexander’s closest associate, the military leader Cleitus the Black, openly accuses him of betraying the memory of his own father and calling himself the son of the god Amon. The enraged sovereign kills Cleitus right at the banquet table.

All these internal unrest did not in any way affect the military leadership tasks of the great conqueror. He continues his hike, going further and further to the east. His plans include the conquest of India. There were legends about its untold riches, and Alexander, spoiled by victories, sees nothing impossible in conquering these lands.

But the fabulous places met the foreign army unfriendly. If in Persia the Macedonians were looked upon as liberators from the unbearable oppression of the Achaemenids, then here the picture was completely different. Numerous tribes and small states were not at all eager to be subjugated by newcomers. They fiercely resisted the invaders, making it difficult for them to advance deeper into the territory.

In the summer of 326 BC. e. the last thing happens on the Hydaspes River major battle in the life of Alexander the Great. King Porus stands against him: the ruler of a strong state, which, by the will of fate, found itself on the path of the great conqueror.

The battle ends in the complete defeat of Porus, despite the large number of elephants and chariots in his army. Here, too, Alexander proves to be at the height of his talent as a commander and takes the hapless local autocrat prisoner. But further military expansion into the interior of the peninsula is not possible. Tired of constant fighting, the warriors begin to openly express their discontent. Alexander the Great is forced to turn back, but he returns by a different route, so the campaign of conquest continues.

The great commander divides the army into three parts. He leads one of them himself, and entrusts the other to the military leader Craterus. The third part of the troops is sent by sea. The fleet is led by the military commander Nearchus. Overcoming the resistance of enemies, drowning in the sands of the desert, ground troops go to the fertile lands of Karmania (region ancient Persia). This is where their meeting takes place. After some time, Nearchus’s flotilla also landed on the shore.

This is where the eastern campaign of Alexander the Great, which made him Great, ends. The conquest of vast lands continued for almost ten years. By the standards of those times, the period was very short compared to the endless territories that fell under the rule of the young and ambitious monarch. This at all times made an indelible impression on other conquerors, who, despite all their efforts, could not compare with Alexander the Great.

The king returns to Babylon. Here he awaits state affairs to organize the leadership of a huge empire. Managing this formation is not at all easy, since a huge number of different nationalities and tribes coexist in it. Alexander becomes increasingly close to the local nobility, marries eldest daughter Darius III Statira (346-323 BC). He forces other Macedonians to take Persian wives.

The policy of the newly-made eastern monarch is becoming increasingly harsh towards his compatriots. This results in a revolt of the Macedonian soldiers. They have not seen their native lands and their relatives for many years, but the king is not going to let them go home. It is limited only to vacation. This position of the autocrat causes indignation and indignation of those who for 10 years shared with him all the hardships of the eastern campaign.

Alexander the Great executes the instigators, but in order to completely resolve the situation, he is forced to resign his soldiers, who went with him all the hard way from Asia Minor to India. 10 thousand soldiers return to their native lands. Each of them has several carts with looted goods. All this was taken from the inhabitants of Asian cities and is now migrating to the lands of Ancient Greece.

The king himself finally settled in Babylon. Here he is preparing for a new campaign, planning to conquer the tribes of the Arabian Peninsula and capture Carthage. Carthage at this time was a powerful state in the western Mediterranean. Having practically monopolized all trade in this region, the Punes (as the Romans called the Carthaginians) concentrated in their hands untold wealth, which was in no way inferior to the wealth of Persia and India.

In 323 BC. e. Preparations for a new military expansion are in full swing. More and more military units are being brought to Babylon from different parts of the state, the fleet is being strengthened, and a reorganization is underway in the top command of the army. A trip to the west promises new brilliant victories and enormous riches.

A week before it starts, a magnificent feast is held. The next morning, Alexander becomes ill. His temperature rises and he begins to have a fever. Every day the health of the great dictator worsens, he begins to lose consciousness and does not recognize his friends and relatives. An incomprehensible illness lasts two weeks and ends with the death of a man who had set his sights on conquering the whole world.

Alexander the Great on his deathbed

Alexander the Great dies in mid-June 323 BC. e. at the age of 32 years old in the city of Babylon, at the zenith of his glory and power. His empire turns out to be a giant with feet of clay. It immediately collapses, breaks up into many states: Syria, Hellenistic Egypt, Bithynia, Pergamon, Macedonia and others. At the head of these new formations are the diadochi - the military leaders of the Macedonian army.

One of them, namely Ptolemy Lagus, settled in Egypt. He takes with him the embalmed body of the great conqueror, thereby emphasizing that he is the heir of Alexander the Great. In these lands, in the city of Alexandria, founded in 332 BC. e. In the Nile Delta, by the will of the young king, a luxurious tomb is being built. The sarcophagus with the body of the deceased is placed in it.

This tomb lasted 500 years. The latest information about it dates back to the time of the Roman emperor Caracalla (186-217). He was in Alexandria in 215 and visited the ashes of the great conqueror. There are no more mentions of the tomb of Alexander the Great in history. No one still knows what happened to the remains of this man after that date, and where they are currently located.

As for the mystery of the death of Alexander the Great, there are several versions, the origins of which go back centuries. The personality of the great commander was so popular that not a single famous historian of both the ancient world and modern times ignored it. Naturally, each of them put forward his own interpretation of this event, which often did not coincide with the opinions of his colleagues.

If we summarize the diversity of opinions, then several main versions come to the fore, each of which has the right to be considered. Some historians are inclined to believe that the culprit in the death of Alexander the Great was none other than his governor in Macedonia, Antipater. Allegedly, shortly before the start of the campaign to the west, the young king decided to remove this man from his post and put another in his place.

Antipater, through people loyal to him, organized the poisoning of his master in order to protect himself from such an unwanted resignation. All this sounds rather doubtful, since in 323 BC. e. Antipater was 73 years old. The age is very old and respectable. It is unlikely that the gray-haired old man held on to his place so strongly, knowing full well that he had already practically lived out the life span determined by providence. He died in 319 BC. e., outliving his king by just over three years.

According to another version, his teacher Aristotle is blamed for the death of Alexander the Great. The younger one. In 323 BC. e. he is only 61 years old. But why would a harmless philosopher raise his hand against his pupil and pour poison into his cup of wine? Moreover, how could he do this when the whole time his student was conquering the world, the philosopher lived quietly in Athens. He settled there in 335 BC. e. and led a philosophical school, giving preference to the improvement of the soul and expounding to others his understanding of the world around him.

There is a strong argument here that Aristotle was very fond of money. He was bribed by representatives of the powerful and wealthy Carthage. The elders of this city and the state of the same name were well aware of Alexander’s plans. They found the most rational way to protect themselves by inviting the philosopher to destroy the talented commander.

Aristotle had huge connections. Among his admirers were not only pampered philosopher students, but also battle-hardened warriors, and a rather motley public who held not the most righteous views on moral norms and prohibitions. He could well have found people who, for a decent reward, were capable of carrying out such an unseemly act as the murder of the king.

However, during the period described, the philosopher felt very unwell. The state of his health left much to be desired, and the sudden death of Alexander the Great only accelerated his death, as the inhabitants of Athens rebelled upon receiving such sad and at the same time welcome news. Aristotle was immediately expelled from the city, and he spent the last months of his earthly existence on the island of Euboea in the Aegean Sea, leading a very modest lifestyle.

There is another version pointing to the Greco-Macedonian environment of the great conqueror. Alexander's military leaders, dissatisfied with his rapprochement with the Persian nobility, entered into a criminal conspiracy and poisoned their patron. Thus, they freed themselves from the harsh autocrat and gained possession of the vast lands of the disintegrated power.

This can be allowed, given previous conspiracies. But the autocrat had already executed all those dissatisfied, and besides, the campaign to the west was about to begin. This expansion promised huge profits to the king’s associates. In theory, the Greek and Macedonian nobility should have taken better care of Alexander than their eyes, blowing away specks of dust from him - after all, the Mediterranean concentrated untold riches, and the native, dear Greek shores were very close by.

So what happens, the mystery of the death of Alexander the Great will remain a mystery? His death in no way coincided with the interests of his associates and associates. On the contrary, the longer the king lived, the richer and more powerful his entourage became.

Remain natural causes. The king contracted some deadly infection and died suddenly. What kind of infection is this, and why did it only affect him?

It has already been said that the official cause of death of Alexander the Great is called malaria or swamp fever. This is an acute infectious disease transmitted by a mosquito bite. Malaria is characterized by recurrent attacks severe chills and high temperature. All this is accompanied by profuse sweating. The liver and kidneys are destroyed, and the blood vessels in the brain are blocked. Death from malaria is quite common.

Thus, it is completely possible that the culprit in the death of Alexander the Great was an ordinary mosquito that bit the invincible commander a couple of weeks before that ill-fated feast, after which the king felt unwell. It’s certainly not a fact that the ruler of half the world was struck down by swamp fever, but the symptoms of the disease are painfully reminiscent of it.

On the other hand, the question arises: why was malaria so selective. No one else around the autocrat died in this way. The king found himself alone in his illness. He withered away in two weeks, but the slaves, guards, military leaders, wife, and other people close to Alexander did not experience anything like this. What kind of mosquitoes are these that have their sights set on only one person?

There is no answer to this question for many years now. The sudden death of Alexander the Great remains a sealed mystery, despite modern advances in medicine. The truth, with a certain degree of probability, could be told by the remains of the great conqueror, but their whereabouts are unknown. It is not even known whether they have survived or been destroyed long ago.

The enormous thickness of time, 25 centuries, has reliably hidden from modern man the cause of the death of the talented commander. This suggests a disappointing conclusion: most likely, humanity will never know the true truth, and the mystery of the death of Alexander the Great will forever remain a mystery.

The article was written by ridar-shakin

Based on materials from Russian publications

Birth of Alexander the Great

According to the records of Greek and Persian historians, Alexander the Great was born on July 29-30, 356 BC. e. in the Macedonian capital Pella.

On the same night, Herostratus burned the temple of Artemis in Ephesus (Asia Minor).

Alexander was born on the eve lunar eclipse which happened in daytime July 30, so it was not visible in the European part of the Earth and there were no records of it. Nowadays, with the help of a computer you can tell exactly when an eclipse occurred.

Eclipse of July 30, 356 BC. e. stood out because during the eclipse the Moon was in Aquarius, in a tense aspect (90 degrees) with the Black Moon, which was in Scorpio.

This situation is always dangerous for the fetus, as it stimulates premature birth. Only the mother’s energy can protect the fetus.

But in this case, Alexander’s mother Olympias, as a zealous bacchante, was often surrounded by snakes, on which the eclipse could produce strong impact. Therefore, during the eclipse, her bioenergy field could decrease, which would not allow protecting the child from its effects. Most likely, this caused premature birth, and the child was born at seven months, which at that time meant that he had no chance of survival.

Why seven months? Yes, because winter bacchanalia was held on the new moon, located close to winter solstice.

The conception of a child by Olympias could have occurred in the final stage of bacchanalia in 3-4 days, approximately December 23-25. This means that Alexander was born after 31 weeks of pregnancy. I think he was born in the morning (around 4 am local time) on July 30, when there was an opposition between the Sun and the Moon, and an eclipse was about to begin, which created a tension in the birth horoscope, located parallel to the horizon.

Supernatural abilitiesAlexander the Great

Often children with such tension in the birth horoscope have congenital pathologies or cannot survive at all. Alexander had no obvious physical pathologies, but his eyes were different. One eye was like a cat's - it could glow.

They knew about this pathology because they were afraid of the gaze of people with different eyes and, especially with similar cat eyes.

But what is this hereditary disease dangerous for the child's life, obviously, they did not know. Since Alexander was entrusted with big plans, for the implementation of which a person had to live a long life. And with this disease, a person’s life could stop at any moment.

At the same time, such a physical pathology of the eye endowed its owner with supernatural abilities. He could energetically influence the people around him, causing them fear and depression.

Over the years, with the help of skillful teachers, Alexander learned to read and influence people's thoughts. With such energy, he could allow evil spirits to come close to him in order to receive the necessary information from it. And he himself could mentally move over long distances and see future events in his imagination.

When Alexander grew up, it became obvious to everyone that Philip was not his father. Alexander was fiery red-haired, with snow-white skin, very sensitive to sun rays, with eyes of different colors - one eye was like a cat’s, the other like a lion’s.

These features of Alexander explained his supposedly divine origin, that he was the son of Dionysus. But Dionysus was not red, and this characteristic color is transmitted only from the parents, and is dominant. This was obviously known at the time.

Although in childhood Alexander was taught that Dionysus was his father, but when he grew up and could draw his own conclusions, he realized that not everything was so smooth and reliable with Dionysus. In addition, his official father, Philip, died under unusual circumstances.

Why was Philip killed?

Philip had an extraordinary intelligence, cunning and cunning. While gaining power, he showed not only excellent military abilities, but also diplomatic talent and foresight.

Justin noted oratory Philip: “In conversations he was both flattering and cunning, in words he promised more than he delivered... As a speaker, he was eloquently inventive and witty; the sophistication of his speech was combined with lightness, and this lightness itself was sophisticated.”

He skillfully resorted to bribery, thereby sparing his soldiers. His expression remains famous in history: “A donkey loaded with gold will take any fortress.”

In addition, Philip, despite the fact that he spent his youth in Thebes, did not in any way resemble an enlightened sovereign, and in his morals and way of life he was similar to the barbarian kings of Thrace.

Theopompus, who lived at Philip's court, left the following damning review (Polybius, 8.11): “If there was anyone in all Greece or among the barbarians whose character was distinguished by shamelessness, he was inevitably drawn to the court of King Philip in Macedonia and received the title of “comrade of the king.” For it was the custom of Philip to praise and promote those who wasted their lives in drunkenness and gambling... Some of them, being men, even shaved their bodies clean; and even bearded men did not shy away from mutual defilement. They took with them two or three slaves for lust, at the same time giving themselves over to the same shameful service, so that it would be fair to call them not soldiers, but prostitutes."

Drunkenness at Philip's court amazed the Greeks, who severely condemned drunkenness, debauchery, and homosexuality.

Athenaeus adds that although the number of “companions” did not exceed 800, they owned more land than any 10 thousand rich Greeks.
Philip's lifestyle shows that in those distant times, peoples with different cultures, principles and spiritual values ​​lived in the neighborhood.

Due to their opposing views, these cultures could not live in peace. Therefore, wars were periodically waged between cultural centers. The culture of Hellas was represented by cultural centers - Athens and Thebes, and the opposite culture - Delphi, Sparta, Macedonia, etc.

In his youth, Philip, together with his future wife Olympias, was initiated into the cult of Dionysus on the island of Samothrace.

But he was not as young as the Olympics and had life experience. Therefore, this dedication and the cult of Dionysus itself was perceived rather as part of the political culture of that time. When he married at Olympias, he began to take the cult of Dionysus more seriously and cautiously.

A story has also been preserved about how, having once entered his wife’s bedchamber, Philip saw on her bed a huge snake stretched along the queen’s body. He allegedly thought that this was not a simple reptile, but someone reincarnated as a snake.

Although in fact Philip was not so naive as to believe that the snake was Dionysus. Since then, he no longer shared a bed with the Olympics. Philip knew that he was not involved in the birth of Alexander.

At the same time, Philip was constantly tormented by the question of who Alexander’s father was. Obviously, he looked closely at all the men who surrounded him, but 20 years have passed, and no one like Alexander has been found.

And so Philip married the young Macedonian Cleopatra, which forced Olympias and Alexander to leave Macedonia and go home to Epirus.

To smooth out the conflict situation with the king of Epirus, Philip, a year after his own wedding, arranged the wedding of his daughter with the prince of Epirus.

And suddenly, during the feast, Philip is killed by his own bodyguard. Alexander returns to Macedonia and investigates, but finds no conspiracy.

It seemed that no one at that time was interested in Philip's death. Philip played a key role in preparing military actions against the Persians, so he had no enemies in geopolitics.

The dissatisfaction of Olympias's ex-wife was alleviated by the fact that Philip married his daughter to the king of Epirus, which satisfied the ambitions of the kings of Epirus, including Olympias, the daughter of the king of Epirus.

Alexander was also not interested in Philip’s death, since he trained him in military affairs, took him with him to the most important battles and trusted him to defend important positions. For example, he entrusted Alexander with protecting the left flank in the Battle of Chaeronea, where the fate of two cultures was decided - Hellas (Athens and Thebes) and Macedonia with Sparta.

So what happened during the feast? I think that the point was that Philip, among the invited guests, finally saw a man who looked like Alexander.

And since Philip was a very skilled diplomat, well versed in politics and actively took part in it, when he saw a man similar to his so-called son, he instantly realized the whole secret plan.

The stranger, understanding Philip's gaze, instantly realized the danger of such a discovery for a certain circle of secret rulers of world politics. The stakes in this political game were too high to ignore. This concerned global politics not only in Greece itself, but throughout the Mediterranean and Egypt.

The stranger most likely had magical powers and could hypnotize Philip's bodyguard. And already in this state, instill in him the idea of ​​​​killing Philip.

Father of Alexander the Great

Judging by the way Alexander was received in Egypt - he was called the son of Pharaoh Nectanebo II, he was so similar to him, then, obviously, Alexander had related roots with him. But this pharaoh was the same age as Alexander, 13 years older than him. To understand the essence of the intrigue, let's consider who could be the father of Alexander the Great.

By the time of Alexander the Great, Egypt was divided into two states - Egypt, ruled by the Persians - Upper Egypt and the Eastern Nile Delta, and Egypt, ruled by the Libyan dynasty - Western Nile Delta, Siwa Oasis, Ethiopia and the Libyan coast.

These two states were in constant war. The pharaohs of the Libyan dynasty invited to their military service(with obligatory payment) the soldiers of Sparta, and the Persian kings - the soldiers of Athens.

Pharaohs with the name Nectaneb traced their ancestry to the pharaohs of the Libyan dynasty, which had previously ruled part of Egypt. Moreover, the main priest guarding the power of the pharaohs was also from this family. Therefore, in the historical chronicles left behind, the chief priest with the name Nectaneb is often confused with Pharaoh Nectaneb.

In addition, a characteristic feature of Libyan culture is that the chief priest had much more influence on government than the dynastic pharaoh.

Events developed this way. At first, Western culture, the oasis of Siwa (temple of Amun) and Ethiopia were ruled by Nectaneb I, then by his son Tachos, who, due to an unsuccessful military battle and to save his life, had to go over to the side of the Persians and leave Egypt.

After him, his cousin Nectanebo II became pharaoh, who ruled Egypt for 18 years, 360-343 BC. e.

Obviously, this pharaoh was the son of the chief priest of Amon and after his father should have taken this hereditary position. But circumstances forced him to become a pharaoh. Therefore, he could combine these two key positions.

This is indicated by his magical abilities, the ability to predict the future and much more that the ancient Egyptian priests did. In addition, he allocated colossal funds to the temples, which he might not have done if he had only been in the position of pharaoh. Records of the activities of this pharaoh were made in all the temples that were subordinate to this dynasty.

Perhaps the combination of two key roles in the state and the magical abilities of Nectanebo II contributed to the implementation of successful policies not only in Egypt itself, but also at the global level, which made him very popular.

So, when in 350 BC. e. The Persians made an attempt to conquer Egypt, then Nectanebo II, inviting talented Greek commanders, the Athenian Diophantus and the Spartan Lamia, who, together with mercenaries, successfully repelled the enemy’s onslaught.

The successes of Nectanebo II had an effect in Phenicia and Cyprus, where new uprisings broke out against the Persians. The anti-Persian coalition was headed by Nectaneb II and the Sidonian (Phoenician) king Tennes, to whom he in 346 BC. e. sent 4,000 Greek mercenaries at the disposal of Mentor from Rhodes.

But in 345 - 344. BC e. Artaxerxes III Ochus managed to suppress the uprisings in Phenicia, Judea and Cyprus. The mentor and the mercenaries went over to the side of the Persians.

Then the subsequent military successes of the Persians in alliance with a number of Greek kingdoms (Thebes, Argos, Greeks of Asia) forced Nectanebo II to flee to Memphis.

In 342 BC. e. the Persians captured Memphis and all of Egypt, and Nectanebo II, collecting his treasures, fled to Ethiopia, where he remained an independent ruler until 341 BC. e., as evidenced by his inscriptions in the temples of Edfu.

This historical event is remembered in folk tales, where it is said that the king, when enemies approach and to repel danger, resorts to the priest’s weapons - magical operations.

“Having launched wax boats onto the surface of the water, and raising his staff with his hand, Nectanebo II used a powerful word. But when he peered closely at the dish, he saw that the ships of the barbarians were controlled by Egyptian gods. Realizing that he, as the pharaoh of Egypt, had been betrayed by the betrayal of the blessed, Nectanebo II He shaved his head and beard to change his appearance, and, putting as much gold in his bosom as he could carry, fled from Egypt through Pelusium."

From what has been written we can conclude that the blessed ones, that is, the good Egyptian gods, were not the close and dear gods of the chief priest. And he used them as servants, they were in his service like the goldfish in Alexander Pushkin’s fairy tale.

For example, the ancient Jews had a secret magical teaching, according to which miracles could be performed not only by the power of Jehovah, but also by the power of “elohim hasherim,” i.e. literally “other gods.”

The fact that the faith of the chief priest of Amun in the Egyptian gods was only a theatrical performance is evidenced by the fact that the pharaoh of the Siwa oasis, in order to move unrecognized to Ethiopia, easily shaved off all his hair and changed into different clothes.

Herodotus wrote in his historical chronicles that in ancient Egypt, priests constantly shaved off all the hair on their bodies. Only those who were in mourning for the deceased grew their hair. And only the Libyans - residents of the Siwa oasis, where the temple of Amon was located, did the opposite - they wore their hair when they were happy, and shaved their hair when they were grieving.

Therefore, the Egyptians would have recognized Nectanebo II not by his face, but by his beard and long hair on the head. Since the Egyptians' mourning did not last long, their hair did not have time to grow significantly.

This means that the Libyan pharaohs of the Nectaneb family represented a completely different people, who had their own god, and whom, for convenience, they called by the Egyptian name Amon - invisible. Since it was convenient to hide one’s real god and one’s essence.

It must be taken into account that Nectanebo II, in accordance with his faith, fled from Egypt as a pharaoh, but not as a priest. Although for the Egyptians his appearance indicated that he belonged to the priests, which was very convenient for disguise.

The Persians did not touch the priests. Therefore, before leaving Egypt, Nectanebo II transferred the position of chief priest to his sister’s son, and reserved only royal power for himself. This position allowed him to behave freely, pretend, move around the world and visit the rulers of other countries and peoples.

And since Nectanebo II had diplomatic and military talent, he naturally wanted to take an active part in world politics in order to implement the plan developed by his family.

Therefore, it is not surprising that, after leaving Egypt, he could visit his relatives and allies in Greece and Macedonia, who wanted to introduce him to King Philip of Macedonia, an active participant in their political plans. The wedding of the king's daughter was an excellent excuse for a meeting and political conversations.

Philip, of course, had heard a lot about the Egyptian pharaoh Nectanebe II, his military exploits, and magical abilities, so he was glad to meet him. But when he saw him with his own eyes, and especially his great similarity with Alexander, he immediately realized that the Nectanebo family represented the royal family of the people, which was striving to establish hegemony on a global scale.

For world domination, the leaders of this people came up with various cults, philosophical theories and other means with the help of which they corrupted the morals of the aristocracy of other nations, depriving them of the opportunity to continue their family line.

Under the guise of gods' intervention in procreation, they conceived their own offspring. And thus, representatives of their people were placed at the base of the royal families.

Nectanebo II, having read Philip's thoughts, used magic to persuade his bodyguard to kill the king of Macedonia. At that time, few could guess the true cause of Philip's death.

But after Alexander the Great visited Egypt, where the people received him as a pharaoh returning from flight, rumors of this similarity reached Greece. And, obviously, the Greek politicians guessed the reason for the murder of Philip.

Therefore, the Greeks gradually cooled towards the cult of Dionysus, and openly held bacchanalia became a thing of the past. And admirers of the cult of Dionysus, in order not to attract attention to themselves, replaced it with the cult of Apollo and Asclepius.

Thus, the father of Alexander the Great was a representative of the royal branch of the Nectanebos, and Nectanebo II was a representative of the priestly branch of this family.

In Libyan culture, royal power was transmitted through the male line, and priestly power through the female line.

In Egyptian culture, everything was the other way around - priestly power was passed down through the male line. Therefore, having returned to Egypt after 11 years, Pharaoh Nectanebo II, and again becoming a pharaoh, ceded the royal throne to Ptolemy, who arrived in Egypt after the death of Alexander the Great. And his (Nectanebo II) grandson, according to tradition, took the position of chief priest of Amon.

The Making of the Messiah

After the death of Philip, Alexander is revealed to a big secret that he is the son not of some Dionysus, but of Zeus-Amun himself, and that he will be able to see evidence of this when he visits Egypt, the temple of Amun and listens to the oracle’s prediction.

When Alexander came to Egypt, he was initiated into the secret of Amon, that in his manifest form Amon could take the form of the god Set, the defender of the power of the pharaohs, the god of war and the desert.

In addition, the god Set was born at an inopportune hour - all the Gods of Ancient Egypt were born during the winter solstice, only Set was born earlier, premature, lame and fiery red.

And another important feature of the god Seth is that he promoted homosexual relations and sodomy. These characteristics suited Alexander and his circle in many ways.

Alexander and his comrades were people of their time, representatives of a culture where the ideal was not a righteous man protecting his soul from vices, but a hero capable of overcoming any obstacles on the way to his goal. Their motto was the slogan: “The end justifies the means!”

Naturally, Alexander wanted to become a great hero, a conqueror of the whole world. He called on his friends and warriors to take over the world. And if they voluntarily followed him, it means that they believed him, and, just like him, they thirsted for glory, booty, adventure and immortality. The Macedonians would never have followed anyone other than a “hero” into Persia for ten whole years, that is, a leader endowed with extraordinary abilities, courage, a passion for adventure and an aura of invincibility.

And for others to believe him, it was necessary for Alexander to believe in himself even more. Any person striving for the highest achievements knows what a huge role his own willpower, the power of imagination, and his own thoughts and feelings play. They, ultimately, determine the success of the plan, which inspires. Also, a true leader should never lose faith in himself or retreat from his path due to failures. He must be able to use experience own mistakes for your own purposes.

From this list of qualities of a hero, we can conclude that a hero needs to be raised, he cannot be born. Therefore, all the stories about Alexander’s divine birth would not have had the necessary impact on him, they would not have developed the ability to control his own feelings, thoughts, imagination and will. And according to historians’ description, he was not such an exemplary child.

In his childhood, Alexander differed from his peers in that he was indifferent to bodily joys and indulged in them very moderately, but he was too ambitious. Therefore, from childhood I envied my father’s fame.

Plutarch wrote about Alexander's character: “Philip saw that Alexander was stubborn by nature, and when he got angry, he did not yield to any violence, but with a reasonable word he could easily be persuaded to make the right decision; therefore, his father tried more to convince than to command.”

Aristotle played the main role in Alexander’s upbringing, who taught him to control his emotions, thoughts and imagination.

Aristotle was a follower of Socrates, Pythagoras and, of course, the priests of Amun from the oasis of Siwa. Therefore, he made the main emphasis in raising Alexander on the development of his supernatural abilities - clairvoyance, telepathy and telekinesis.

Aristotle taught Alexander to isolate a certain part of consciousness and transport it with it to a planned place, where, with the help of clairvoyance and clairaudience, search for the necessary information. Possessing such abilities, Alexander could do without geographical maps and reconnaissance units.

Currently, similar technology is used by intelligence services in developed countries.

At one time, I tested this method on my consciousness and saw its possibilities. When a part of consciousness is separated from the body and ends up in the intended place, the perception of this part by consciousness is significantly enhanced.

Perhaps the physical body, with its fields, somewhat depresses or lowers the threshold of perception. Therefore, consciousness, separated from the body, perceives nature much more sensitively - the vibration of the air is felt and even seen, nature acquires a brighter color, for example, the green foliage of trees and grass becomes brighter.

In addition, the consciousness isolated from the human body easily penetrates into the consciousness of plants, animals, and people. Everything around you seems to start talking to you. And this is fascinating, which is very dangerous, since it is difficult to get out of this state on your own.

This is especially dangerous for children's consciousness, since children are not able to control their own thoughts. Children can remain in this state for many years, and sometimes all their lives. Modern medicine This state of consciousness is classified as a disease - childhood autism.

Thus, Alexander, as a representative of the royal family, also developed the abilities of a priest. Perhaps the combination of blood and magical abilities was a sign of the messiah. Therefore, the priests of the temple of Amon accepted Alexander into the secret Masonic order, which may still have survived from the pharaohs of the New Kingdom of Egypt.

The priests initiated Alexander into secret knowledge, taught him telepathic communication with them, so that he could receive their advice on long campaigns. Perhaps they gave him the Ring of Solomon for the duration of his mission, with which one can control the genies.

At one time, the genies helped King Solomon build a temple. Solomon and his father King David were members and leaders of the ancient Freemasons.

Conquests of Alexander the Great

Armed with secret knowledge and talismans, Alexander the Great first carried out campaigns of conquest in the lands conquered by the Persians.

He then tried to conquer India, but, having met decent resistance, he abandoned further battles with the Hindus. He did not want to waste the strength of his army on the war, since the conquest of territories in the eastern direction was not part of his plans.

Therefore, having completed one of the points of the planned plan, he moved on to implementing the remaining points. And these points were the transition and conquest of the Arabian Desert, a military campaign against Carthage.

But why was it necessary to fight with Carthage if in the fight against the Persians the Phoenicians were allies and acted as a united front. History is silent, and science ignores this fact, as if it were something insignificant that is not worthy of attention.

But how can the ultimate goal of Alexander the Great’s campaign be ignored? Moreover, such a goal as the destruction of the culture of Carthage.

Fate did not allow Alexander to achieve his final goal. The campaigns of Alexander the Great nevertheless achieved significant success and he accomplished a number of feats, and the empire of Alexander the Great had a huge territory. It is from these successful actions that one can unravel what secrets Alexander possessed.

Although there are quite a lot of them, what is of interest for our topic is the meeting of the army of Alexander the Great with the legendary basilisk. This monster of the Libyan desert killed with his gaze. And Alexander used the method in which the mythical Gorgon Medusa was killed - he placed a mirror in the path of the basilisk.