Alexandra Vasilyevna Vanya could not hide his bitterness due to the fact that his mother did not want to come to Sonya’s wedding. After the death of Vasily Ivanovich, she began to torment Vanya with some kind of fury. He was torn to pieces, trying to devote more time and attention to his mother, but

Two Alexanders Two graduate students of the Pushkin House once walked into the dining room on Vasilyevsky Island. Both of them bore the sonorous name Alexander. In the briefcase of one of the Alexanders there was a bottle of vodka, which the namesakes intended to drink. Since clean glasses in public catering

Assassination of Alexander II Knowing about the presence of a terrorist organization and having survived five assassination attempts, Alexander II still refused to leave the capital. All of Russia insisted that the emperor, according to the prediction of a Parisian fortune teller, would survive seven assassination attempts, and no one thought that on March 1, 1881

Alexandra Kollontai Valkyrie of the Revolution Only the publication of her notes, diaries, and memoirs of other participants in those events returned human features to Kollontai’s portrait - the features of a woman who was admired and feared, loved and forgotten. Valkyries of the Revolution.Magical

2. Alexandra It was as if my elder sister had not been in my life for a long time. Perhaps this is explained by the fact that the role of a nanny was not imposed on her in the family - until I went to school, my mother did not work and looked after me herself. I only remember Alexandra more or less firmly

Son of Pavel Petrovich and Empress Maria Feodorovna; genus. in St. Petersburg on December 12, 1777, ascended the throne on March 12, 1801, † in Taganrog on November 19, 1825. Great Catherine did not love her son Pavel Petrovich, but took care of raising her grandson, who, for these purposes, however, deprived of maternal care early. The empress tried to raise his upbringing to the heights of contemporary pedagogical requirements. She wrote “grandmother’s alphabet” with didactic anecdotes, and in the instructions given to the teacher of the Grand Dukes Alexander and (his brother) Konstantin, Count (later Prince) N.I. Saltykov, with the highest rescript of March 13, 1784, she expressed her thoughts " regarding health and its preservation; regarding the continuation and reinforcement of an inclination towards goodness, regarding virtue, courtesy and knowledge" and rules for "supervisors regarding their behavior with pupils." These instructions are built on the principles of abstract liberalism and are imbued with the pedagogical ideas of “Emile” Rousseau. The implementation of this plan was entrusted to different persons . The conscientious Swiss Laharpe, an admirer of republican ideas and political freedom, was in charge of the Grand Duke’s mental education, reading with him Demosthenes and Mably, Tacitus and Gibbon, Locke and Rousseau; he managed to earn the respect and friendship of his student. La Harpe was helped by Kraft, a professor of physics, the famous Pallas, who read botany, and the mathematician Masson. The Russian language was taught by the famous sentimental writer and moralist M. N. Muravyov, and the law of God was taught by Archpriest. A. A. Samborsky, a more secular person, devoid of deep religious feelings. Finally, Count N.I. Saltykov cared mainly about preserving the health of the grand dukes and enjoyed Alexander’s favor until his death. The education given to the Grand Duke did not have a strong religious and national basis; it did not develop personal initiative in him and protected him from contact with Russian reality. On the other hand, it was too abstract for a young man of 10-14 years old and skimmed the surface of his mind without penetrating deeper. Therefore, although such an upbringing aroused in the Grand Duke a number of humane feelings and vague ideas of a liberal nature, it did not give either one or the other a definite form and did not give young Alexander the means to implement them, therefore, it was devoid of practical significance. The results of this upbringing affected Alexander’s character. They largely explain his impressionability, humanity, attractive appeal, but at the same time some inconsistency. The education itself was interrupted due to the early marriage of the Grand Duke (16 years old) to the 14-year-old Princess Louise of Baden, Grand Duchess Elisaveta Alekseevna. From a young age, Alexander was in a rather difficult position between his father and grandmother. Often, having attended parades and exercises in Gatchina in the morning, in an awkward uniform, he would appear in the evening among the refined and witty society that gathered in the Hermitage. The need to behave completely rationally in these two areas taught the Grand Duke to secrecy, and the discrepancy that he encountered between the theories instilled in him and the bare Russian reality instilled in him distrust of people and disappointment. The changes that took place in court life and social order after the death of the empress could not favorably influence Alexander's character. Although at that time he served as the St. Petersburg military governor, he was also a member of the Council, the Senate, and the chief of the lieutenant government. Semenovsky regiment and presided over the military department, but did not enjoy the trust of Emperor Pavel Petrovich. Despite the difficult situation in which the Grand Duke found himself at the court of Emperor Paul, he already at that time showed humanity and meekness in his dealings with his subordinates; These properties so seduced everyone that even a person with a heart of stone, according to Speransky, could not resist such treatment. Therefore, when Alexander Pavlovich ascended the throne on March 12, 1801, he was greeted by the most joyful public mood. Difficult political and administrative tasks awaited resolution from the young ruler. Still little experienced in matters of government, he preferred to adhere to the political views of his great grandmother, Empress Catherine, and in a manifesto dated March 12, 1801, he announced his intention to govern the people entrusted to him by God according to the laws and “according to the heart” of the late empress.

The Treaty of Basel, concluded between Prussia and France, forced Empress Catherine to join England in a coalition against France. With the accession of Emperor Paul to the throne, the coalition disintegrated, but was resumed again in 1799. In the same year, the alliance of Russia with Austria and England was broken again; A rapprochement was discovered between the St. Petersburg and Berlin courts, and peaceful relations began with the first consul (1800). Emperor Alexander hastened to restore peace with England by a convention on June 5 and concluded peace treaties on September 26 with France and Spain; At the same time, there was a decree on the free passage of foreigners and Russians abroad, as was the case before 1796. Having thus restored peaceful relations with the powers, the emperor devoted almost all his energy to internal, transformative activities for the first four years of his reign. Alexander's transformative activity was primarily aimed at destroying those orders of the past reign that modified the social order destined by the great Catherine. Two manifestos, signed on April 2, 1801, restored: the charter granted to the nobility, the city status and the charter given to cities; Soon after, the law was re-approved, exempting priests and deacons, along with personal nobles, from corporal punishment. The secret expedition (however, established under Catherine II) was destroyed by the manifesto of April 2, and on September 15 it was ordered to establish a commission to review previous criminal cases; this commission really eased the fate of persons “whose guilt was unintentional and more related to the opinion and way of thinking of that time than to dishonest deeds that actually harmed the state.” Finally, torture was abolished, it was allowed to import foreign books and notes, as well as open private printing houses, as was the case before 1796. The transformations, however, consisted not only of restoring the order that existed before 1796, but also of replenishing it with new orders . The reform of local institutions that took place under Catherine did not affect central institutions; and yet they also demanded restructuring. Emperor Alexander set about completing this difficult task. His collaborators in this activity were: insightful and knowledgeable about England better than Russia gr. V.P. Kochubey, smart, learned and capable N.N. Novosiltsev, admirer of English customs, Prince. A. Czartoryski, a Pole by sympathies, and gr. P. A. Stroganov, who received an exclusively French upbringing. Soon after ascending the throne, the sovereign established, instead of a temporary council, an indispensable council, which was subject to consideration of all the most important state affairs and draft regulations. Manifesto of September 8 1802, the significance of the Senate was defined, which was entrusted with “considering the actions of ministers in all parts of their administration entrusted and, based on proper comparison and consideration of them with state regulations and with reports that reached the Senate directly from the localities, draw their conclusions and submit a report” to the sovereign. The Senate retains the role of the highest court; Only the First Department retained administrative significance. By the same manifesto on September 8. the central administration is divided between 8 newly established ministries, which are the ministries: military, naval forces, foreign affairs, justice, finance, commerce and public education. Each ministry was under the control of a minister, to whom (in the ministries of the interior and foreign affairs, justice, finance and public education) was attached a comrade. All ministers were members of the Council of State and were present in the Senate. These transformations, however, were carried out rather hastily, so that the previous institutions were faced with a new administrative order that had not yet been fully defined. The Ministry of Internal Affairs received a more complete structure earlier than others (in 1803). - In addition to a more or less systematic reform of central institutions, during the same period (1801-1805) separate orders were made regarding public relations and measures were taken to spread public education. The right to own land, on the one hand, and engage in trade, on the other, is extended to different classes of the population. Decree 12 Dec. 1801 The merchants, philistines and state-owned villagers were given the right to acquire land. On the other hand, landowners were allowed to produce foreign goods in 1802 wholesale trade with the payment of guild duties, and also in 1812, and peasants were allowed to carry out trade from own name, but only on an annual certificate taken from the county treasury with payment of the required fees. Emperor Alexander sympathized with the idea of ​​emancipating the peasants; To this end, several important measures were taken. Under the influence of the project for the liberation of peasants submitted by Count. S.P. Rumyantsev, a law was issued on free cultivators (February 20, 1803). According to this law, peasants could enter into transactions with landowners, free themselves from the land and, without registering in another state, continued to be called free cultivators. It is also prohibited to make publications about the sale of peasants without land, the distribution of inhabited estates was stopped, and the regulation on the peasants of the Livonia province, approved on February 20, 1804, eased their fate. Along with administrative and estate reforms, the revision of laws continued in the commission, the management of which was entrusted to Count Zavadovsky on June 5, 1801, and a draft code began to be drawn up. This code was supposed, in the opinion of the sovereign, to complete a number of reforms he had undertaken and “to protect the rights of one and all,” but remained unfulfilled, except for one general part (Code général). But if administrative and social order had not yet been reduced to general principles state law in legislative monuments, then in any case was inspired by an increasingly widespread system of public education. On September 8, 1802, a commission (then the main board) of schools was established; she developed a regulation on the device educational institutions in Russia. The rules of this regulation on the establishment of schools, divided into parish, district, provincial or gymnasiums and universities, on orders for the educational and economic part were approved on January 24, 1803. The Academy of Sciences was restored in St. Petersburg, new regulations and staff were issued for it in 1804. A pedagogical institute was founded, and in 1805 universities were founded in Kazan and Kharkov. In 1805, P. G. Demidov donated significant capital for the establishment of a higher school in Yaroslavl, gr. Bezborodko did the same for Nezhin; the nobility of the Kharkov province petitioned for the founding of a university in Kharkov and provided funds for this. Technical institutions were founded, such as: a commercial school in Moscow (in 1804), commercial gymnasiums in Odessa and Taganrog (1804); the number of gymnasiums and schools has been increased.

But all this peaceful transformative activity was soon to cease. Emperor Alexander, unaccustomed to the stubborn struggle with those practical difficulties that so often encountered him on the way to the implementation of his plans, and surrounded by inexperienced young advisers who were too little familiar with Russian reality, soon cooled towards reforms. Meanwhile, the dull rumbles of war, approaching, if not Russia, then its neighboring Austria, began to attract his attention and opened up a new field of diplomatic and military activity for him. Soon after the Peace of Amiens (March 25, 1802), a rupture between England and France followed again (early 1803) and hostile relations between France and Austria were renewed. Misunderstandings also arose between Russia and France. Patronage provided by the Russian government to Dantreg, who was in Russian service with Christen, and the arrest of the latter by the French government, violation of the articles of the secret convention of October 11 (New Art.), 1801 on preserving the integrity of the possessions of the King of the Two Sicilies, execution of the Duke of Enghien (March 1804) and the acceptance of the imperial title by the first consul - led to a break with Russia (August 1804). It was therefore natural for Russia to draw closer to England and Sweden at the beginning of 1805 and to join the same union with Austria, friendly relations with which began as early as the accession of Emperor Alexander to the throne. The war opened unsuccessfully: the shameful defeat of the Austrian troops at Ulm forced the Russian forces sent to help Austria, led by Kutuzov, to retreat from Inn to Moravia. The affairs of Krems, Gollabrun and Schöngraben were only ominous harbingers of the Austerlitz defeat (November 20, 1805), in which Emperor Alexander stood at the head of the Russian army. The results of this defeat were reflected in the retreat of Russian troops to Radziwill, in the uncertain and then hostile relations of Prussia towards Russia and Austria, in the conclusion of the Peace of Presburg (December 26, 1805) and the Schönbrunn Defensive and Offensive Alliance. Before the Austerlitz defeat, Prussia's relations with Russia remained extremely uncertain. Although Emperor Alexander managed to persuade the weak Friedrich Wilhelm to approve a secret declaration on May 12, 1804 regarding the war against France, it was already violated on June 1 by new conditions concluded by the Prussian king with France. The same fluctuations are noticeable after Napoleon's victories in Austria. During a personal meeting, imp. Alexandra and the king in Potsdam concluded the Potsdam Convention on October 22. 1805. According to this convention, the king pledged to contribute to the restoration of the terms of the Peace of Luneville violated by Napoleon, to accept military mediation between the warring powers, and if such mediation failed, he had to join the Coalition. But the Peace of Schönbrunn (December 15, 1805) and even more so the Paris Convention (February 1806), approved by the King of Prussia, showed how little one could hope for the consistency of Prussian policy. Nevertheless, the declaration and counter-declaration, signed on July 12, 1806 in Charlottenburg and on Kamenny Island, revealed a rapprochement between Prussia and Russia, a rapprochement that was enshrined in the Bartenstein Convention (April 14, 1807). But already in the second half of 1806 a new war broke out. The campaign began on October 8, was marked by terrible defeats of the Prussian troops at Jena and Auerstedt and would have ended with the complete conquest of Prussia if Russian troops had not come to the aid of the Prussians. Under the command of M. F. Kamensky, who was soon replaced by Bennigsen, these troops put up strong resistance to Napoleon at Pultusk, then were forced to retreat after the battles of Morungen, Bergfried, Landsberg. Although after the bloody battle of Preussisch-Eylau the Russians also retreated, Napoleon’s losses were so significant that he unsuccessfully sought an opportunity to enter into peace negotiations with Bennigsen and corrected his affairs only with a victory at Friedland (June 14, 1807). Emperor Alexander did not take part in this campaign, perhaps because he was still under the impression of the Austerlitz defeat and only on April 2. 1807 arrived in Memel for a meeting with the King of Prussia, who had been deprived of almost all his possessions. Failure at Friedland forced him to agree to peace. The whole party at the court of the sovereign and the army wished for peace; in addition, they were prompted by the ambiguous behavior of Austria and the emperor’s dissatisfaction with England; finally, Napoleon himself needed the same peace. On June 25, a meeting took place between Emperor Alexander and Napoleon, who managed to charm the sovereign with his intelligence and insinuating appeal, and on the 27th of the same month the Tilsit Treaty was concluded. According to this treaty, Russia acquired the Bialystok region; Emperor Alexander ceded Cattaro and the republic of 7 islands to Napoleon, and the Principality of Jevre to Louis of Holland, recognized Napoleon as emperor, Joseph of Naples as king of the Two Sicilies, and also agreed to recognize the titles of the rest of Napoleon's brothers, the present and future titles of members of the Confederation of the Rhine. Emperor Alexander took upon himself mediation between France and England and, in turn, agreed to Napoleon's mediation between Russia and the Porte. Finally, according to the same peace, “out of respect for Russia,” his possessions were returned to the Prussian king. - The Treaty of Tilsit was confirmed by the Erfurt Convention (September 30, 1808), and Napoleon then agreed to the annexation of Moldavia and Wallachia to Russia.

During a meeting in Tilsit, Napoleon, wanting to divert Russian forces, pointed Emperor Alexander to Finland and even earlier (in 1806) armed Turkey against Russia. The reason for the war with Sweden was Gustav IV’s dissatisfaction with the Peace of Tilsit and his reluctance to enter into armed neutrality, restored due to Russia’s break with England (October 25, 1807). War was declared on March 16, 1808. Russian troops, under the command of gr. Buxhoeveden, then gr. Kamensky, occupied Sveaborg (April 22), won victories at Alovo, Kuortan and especially at Orovais, then crossed the ice from Abo to the Åland Islands in the winter of 1809 under the command of Prince. Bagration, from Vasa to Umeå and through Torneo to Westrabotnia under the leadership of Barclay de Tolly and c. Shuvalova. The successes of the Russian troops and the change of government in Sweden contributed to the conclusion of the Peace of Friedrichsham (September 5, 1809) with the new king, Charles XIII. According to this world, Russia acquired Finland before the river. Torneo with the Åland Islands. Emperor Alexander himself visited Finland, opened the Diet and “preserved the faith, fundamental laws, rights and benefits that hitherto were enjoyed by each class in particular and all the inhabitants of Finland in general according to their constitutions.” A committee was set up in St. Petersburg and a state secretary for Finnish affairs was appointed; in Finland itself, executive power was vested in the Governor-General, and legislative power was vested in the Government Council, which later became known as the Finnish Senate. - The war with Turkey was less successful. The occupation of Moldavia and Wallachia by Russian troops in 1806 led to this war; but before the Peace of Tilsit, hostile actions were limited to Michelson’s attempts to occupy Zhurzha, Ishmael and some friends. fortress, as well as the successful actions of the Russian fleet under the command of Senyavin against the Turkish, which suffered a severe defeat at Fr. Lemnos. The Peace of Tilsit temporarily stopped the war; but it resumed after the Erfurt meeting due to the Porte’s refusal to cede Moldavia and Wallachia. Failures of the book. Prozorovsky was soon corrected by the brilliant victory of Count. Kamensky at Batyn (near Rushchuk) and the defeat of the Turkish army at Slobodza on the left bank of the Danube, under the command of Kutuzov, who was appointed to replace the deceased gr. Kamensky. The successes of Russian weapons forced the Sultan to peace, but the peace negotiations dragged on for a very long time, and the sovereign, dissatisfied with Kutuzov’s slowness, had already appointed Admiral Chichagov as commander-in-chief when he learned of the conclusion of the Bucharest Peace (May 16, 1812). ). According to this peace, Russia acquired Bessarabia with the fortresses of Khotin, Bendery, Akkerman, Kiliya, Izmail to the Prut River, and Serbia acquired internal autonomy. - Along with the wars in Finland and the Danube, Russian weapons also had to fight in the Caucasus. After the unsuccessful management of Georgia, Gen. Knorring appointed Prince General Governor of Georgia. Tsitsianov. He conquered the Jaro-Belokan region and Ganja, which he renamed Elisavetopol, but was treacherously killed during the siege of Baku (1806). - When controlling gr. Gudovich and Tormasov annexed Mingrelia, Abkhazia and Imereti, and the exploits of Kotlyarevsky (the defeat of Abbas-Mirza, the capture of Lankaran and the conquest of the Talshin Khanate) contributed to the conclusion of the Peace of Gulistan (October 12, 1813), the conditions of which changed after some acquisitions made by Mr. . Ermolov, commander-in-chief of Georgia since 1816.

All these wars, although they ended in quite important territorial acquisitions, had a detrimental effect on the state of the national and state economy. In 1801-1804. government revenues collected about 100 million. annually, there were up to 260 m of banknotes in circulation, the external debt did not exceed 47¼ million silver. rubles, the deficit was insignificant. Meanwhile, in 1810, income decreased by two and then four times. Banknotes were issued for 577 million rubles, external debt increased to 100 million rubles, and there was a deficit of 66 million rubles. Accordingly, the value of the ruble fell sharply. In 1801-1804. the silver ruble accounted for 1¼ and 11/5 banknotes, and on April 9, 1812 it was supposed to count 1 ruble. silver equal to 3 rubles. assig. The brave hand of a former student of the St. Petersburg Alexander Seminary brought the state economy out of such a difficult situation. Thanks to the activities of Speransky (especially the manifestos of February 2, 1810, January 29 and February 11, 1812), the issue of banknotes was stopped, the capitation salary and quitrent tax were increased, a new progressive income tax, new indirect taxes and duties were established. The coin system was also transformed by the manifest. dated June 20, 1810. The results of the transformations were already partly felt in 1811, when income was received for 355 1/2 m.r. (= 89 m. rub. silver), expenses extended only to 272 m. rub., arrears were 43 m., and debt was 61 m. This entire financial crisis was caused by a series of difficult wars. But these wars after the Peace of Tilsit no longer absorbed all the attention of Emperor Alexander. Unsuccessful wars of 1805-1807. instilled in him distrust of his own military abilities; he again turned his energies to internal transformative activities, especially since he now had such a talented assistant as Speransky. The project of reforms, drawn up by Speransky in a liberal spirit and bringing into the system the thoughts expressed by the sovereign himself, was implemented only to a small extent. Decree 6 Aug. In 1809, rules for promotion to ranks in the civil service and tests in the sciences for promotion to the 8th and 9th grades of officials without university certificates were promulgated. By the manifesto of January 1, 1810, the former “permanent” council was transformed into a state council with legislative significance. “In the order of state regulations,” the Council constituted “an estate in which all parts of government in their main relations to legislation” were considered and through it ascended to the supreme imperial power. Therefore, “all laws, charters and institutions in their original outlines were proposed and considered in the State Council and then, through the action of the sovereign power, they were carried out for their intended implementation.” The State Council was divided into four departments: the department of laws included everything that was essentially the subject of the law; the commission of laws had to submit to this department all the original drafts of the laws compiled in it. The Department of Military Affairs included the “subjects” of the Ministries of War and Navy. The department of civil and spiritual affairs included the affairs of justice, the spiritual administration and the police. Finally, the department of state economy included “subjects of general industry, science, trade, finance, treasury and accounts.” At the State Council there were: a commission for drafting laws, a commission for petitions, and a state chancellery. Along with the transformation of the State Council by the manifesto of July 25, 1810, two new institutions were attached to the former ministries: the Ministry of Police and the Main Directorate for Audit of Public Accounts. On the contrary, the affairs of the Ministry of Commerce are distributed between the Ministries of Internal Affairs and Finance, and the Ministries itself. Commerce has been abolished. - Along with the reform of the central government, transformations continued in the field of spiritual education. The church's candle income, allocated for the costs of establishing religious schools (1807), made it possible to increase their number. In 1809, a theological academy was opened in St. Petersburg and in 1814 - in the Sergius Lavra; in 1810 the Corps of Railway Engineers was established, in 1811 the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum was founded, and in 1814 the Public Library was opened.

But the second period of transformative activity was also disrupted by a new war. Already soon after the Erfurt Convention, disagreements between Russia and France emerged. By virtue of this convention, Emperor Alexander deployed the 30,000th detachment of the allied army in Galicia during the Austrian War of 1809. But this detachment, which was under the command of Prince. S. F. Golitsyn, acted hesitantly, since Napoleon’s obvious desire to restore or at least significantly strengthen Poland and his refusal to approve the convention of December 23. 1809, which protected Russia from such a strengthening, aroused strong fears on the part of the Russian government. The emergence of disagreement intensified under the influence of new circumstances. The tariff for 1811, issued on December 19, 1810, aroused Napoleon's displeasure. Another treaty in 1801 restored peaceful trade relations with France, and in 1802 the trade agreement concluded in 1786 was extended for 6 years. But already in 1804 it was forbidden to bring all kinds of paper fabrics along the western border, and in 1805. duties on some silk and woolen products were increased in order to encourage local, Russian production. The government was guided by the same goals in 1810. The new tariff increased duties on wine, wood, cocoa, coffee and granulated sugar; foreign paper (except white ones for branding), linen, silk, wool and the like are prohibited; Russian goods, flax, hemp, lard, linseed, sailing and flax linen, potash and resin are subject to the highest export duty. On the contrary, the import of raw foreign works and the duty-free export of iron from Russian factories are allowed. The new tariff harmed French trade and infuriated Napoleon, who demanded that Emperor Alexander accept the French tariff and not accept not only English, but also neutral (American) ships into Russian harbors. Soon after the publication of the new tariff, the Duke of Oldenburg, the uncle of Emperor Alexander, was deprived of his possessions, and the sovereign’s protest, circularly expressed on this issue on March 12, 1811, remained without consequences. After these clashes, war was inevitable. Already in 1810, Scharngorst assured that Napoleon had a war plan against Russia ready. In 1811, Prussia entered into an alliance with France, then Austria. In the summer of 1812, Napoleon moved with the allied troops through Prussia and on June 11 crossed the Neman between Kovno and Grodno, with 600,000 troops. Emperor Alexander had military forces three times smaller; They were headed by: Barclay de Tolly and Prince. Bagration in the Vilna and Grodno provinces. But behind this relatively small army stood the entire Russian people, not to mention individuals and the nobility of entire provinces; all of Russia voluntarily fielded up to 320,000 warriors and donated at least a hundred million rubles. After the first clashes between Barclay near Vitebsk and Bagration near Mogilev with French troops, as well as Napoleon’s unsuccessful attempt to go behind the Russian troops and occupy Smolensk, Barclay began to retreat along the Dorogobuzh road. Raevsky, and then Dokhturov (with Konovnitsyn and Neverovsky) managed to repel two attacks of Napoleon on Smolensk; but after the second attack, Dokhturov had to leave Smolensk and join the retreating army. Despite the retreat, Emperor Alexander left Napoleon's attempt to start peace negotiations without consequences, but was forced to replace Barclay, who was unpopular among the troops, with Kutuzov. The latter arrived at the main apartment in Tsarevo Zaimishche on August 17, and on the 26th he fought the battle of Borodino. The outcome of the battle remained unresolved, but the Russian troops continued to retreat to Moscow, whose population was strongly incited against the French, by the way, by the posters of the gr. Trampling. The military council in Fili on the evening of September 1 decided to leave Moscow, which was occupied by Napoleon on September 3, but was soon abandoned (October 7) due to a lack of supplies, severe fires and the decline of military discipline. Meanwhile, Kutuzov (probably on the advice of Tol) turned from the Ryazan road, along which he was retreating, to Kaluga and gave battles to Napoleon at Tarutin and Maloyaroslavets. Cold, hunger, unrest in the army, rapid retreat, successful actions of the partisans (Davydov, Figner, Seslavin, Samusya), the victories of Miloradovich at Vyazma, Ataman Platov at Vopi, Kutuzov at Krasny led the French army into complete disorder, and after the disastrous crossing of the Berezina forced Napoleon, before reaching Vilna, to flee to Paris. On December 25, 1812, a manifesto was issued on the final expulsion of the French from Russia. The Patriotic War was over; she made strong changes in the spiritual life of Emperor Alexander. In a difficult time of national disasters and mental anxieties, he began to look for support in religious feeling and in this regard found support in the state. secret Shishkov, who now occupied the place empty after the removal of Speransky even before the start of the war. The successful outcome of this war further developed in the sovereign his faith in the inscrutable ways of Divine Providence and the conviction that the Russian Tsar had a difficult political task: to establish peace in Europe on the basis of justice, the sources of which the religiously minded soul of Emperor Alexander began to seek in the gospel teachings . Kutuzov, Shishkov, partly gr. Rumyantsev were against continuing the war abroad. But Emperor Alexander, supported by Stein, firmly decided to continue military operations. January 1, 1813 Russian troops crossed the border of the empire and found themselves in Prussia. Already on December 18, 1812, York, the head of the Prussian detachment sent to help the French troops, entered into an agreement with Diebitsch on the neutrality of the German troops, although, however, he did not have permission from the Prussian government. The Kalisz Treaty (February 15-16, 1813) concluded a defensive-offensive alliance with Prussia, confirmed by the Teplitsky Treaty (August 1813). Meanwhile, Russian troops under the command of Wittgenstein, together with the Prussians, were defeated in the battles of Lutzen and Bautzen (April 20 and May 9). After the armistice and the so-called Prague Conferences, which resulted in Austria joining an alliance against Napoleon under the Reichenbach Convention (June 15, 1813), hostilities resumed. After a successful battle for Napoleon at Dresden and unsuccessful battles at Kulm, Brienne, Laon, Arsis-sur-Aube and Fer Champenoise, Paris surrendered on March 18, 1814, the Peace of Paris was concluded (May 18) and Napoleon was overthrown. Soon after, on May 26, 1815, the Congress of Vienna opened mainly to discuss Polish, Saxon and Greek issues. Emperor Alexander was with the army throughout the campaign and insisted on the occupation of Paris by the allied forces. According to the main act of the Congress of Vienna (June 28, 1816), Russia acquired part of the Duchy of Warsaw, except for the Grand Duchy of Poznan, given to Prusia, and the part ceded to Austria, and in the Polish possessions annexed to Russia, Emperor Alexander introduced a constitution drawn up in liberal spirit. Peace negotiations at the Congress of Vienna were interrupted by Napoleon's attempt to regain the French throne. Russian troops again moved from Poland to the banks of the Rhine, and Emperor Alexander left Vienna for Heidelberg. But Napoleon's hundred-day reign ended with his defeat at Waterloo and the restoration of the legitimate dynasty in the person of Louis XVIII under the difficult conditions of the second Peace of Paris (November 8, 1815). Wishing to establish peaceful international relations between the Christian sovereigns of Europe on the basis of brotherly love and the commandments of the Gospel, Emperor Alexander drew up an act of the Holy Alliance, signed by himself, the King of Prussia and the Austrian Emperor. International relations were supported by congresses in Aachen (1818), where it was decided to withdraw the Allied troops from France, in Troppau (1820) due to unrest in Spain, Laibach (1821) - due to the indignation in Savoy and the Neapolitan revolution, and, finally, in Verona (1822) - to pacify the indignation in Spain and discuss the eastern question.

A direct result of the difficult wars of 1812-1814. there was a deterioration in the state economy. By January 1, 1814, only 587½ million rubles were listed in the parish; internal debts reached 700 million rubles, the Dutch debt extended to 101½ million guilders (= 54 million rubles), and the silver ruble in 1815 was worth 4 rubles. 15 k. assig. How lasting these consequences were is revealed by the state of Russian finances ten years later. In 1825, state revenues were only 529½ million rubles, banknotes were issued for 595 1/3 million rubles, which, together with Dutch and some other debts, amounted to 350½ million rubles. ser. It is true that in terms of trade, more significant successes are being noticed. In 1814, the import of goods did not exceed 113½ million rubles, and the export - 196 million appropriations; in 1825 the import of goods reached 185½ million. rubles, the export amounted to 236½ mil. rub. But the wars of 1812-1814 had other consequences as well. The restoration of free political and trade relations between the European powers also caused the publication of several new tariffs. In the tariff of 1816, some changes were made compared to the tariff of 1810; the tariff of 1819 greatly reduced prohibitive duties on some foreign goods, but already in the orders of 1820 and 1821. and the new tariff of 1822 there was a noticeable return to the previous protective system. With the fall of Napoleon, the relationship he had established between the political forces of Europe collapsed. Emperor Alexander took upon himself a new definition of their relationship. This task diverted the sovereign’s attention from the internal transformative activities of previous years, especially since the former admirers of English constitutionalism were no longer at the throne at that time, and the brilliant theorist and supporter of French institutions Speransky was replaced over time by a stern formalist, chairman of the military department of the State Council and the chief commander of military settlements, the naturally poorly gifted Count Arakcheev. However, in government orders of the last decade of the reign of Emperor Alexander, traces of previous transformative ideas are sometimes still noticeable. On May 28, 1816, the project of the Estonian nobility for the final liberation of the peasants was approved. The Courland nobility followed the example of the Estonian nobles at the invitation of the government itself, which approved the same project regarding the Courland peasants on August 25, 1817 and regarding the Livland peasants on March 26, 1819. Along with the class orders, several changes were made in the central and regional administration. By decree of September 4, 1819, the Ministry of Police was annexed to the Ministry of the Interior, from which the Department of Manufactures and Internal Trade was transferred to the Ministry of Finance. In May 1824, the affairs of the Holy Synod were separated from the Ministry of Public Education, where they were transferred according to the manifesto of October 24, 1817, and where only affairs of foreign confessions remained. Even earlier, the manifesto of May 7, 1817 established a council of credit institutions, both for audits and verification of all operations, and for the consideration and conclusion of all assumptions regarding the credit part. At the same time (manif. April 2, 1817) the replacement of the tax-farm system with the government sale of wine dates back to that time; The management of drinking fees is concentrated in the state chambers. Regarding regional administration, an attempt was also made shortly thereafter to distribute the Great Russian provinces into general governorships. Government activities also continued to have an impact on public education. In 1819, public courses were organized at the St. Petersburg Pedagogical Institute, which laid the foundation for St. Petersburg University. In 1820 the engineering school was transformed and the artillery school was founded; The Richelieu Lyceum was established in Odessa in 1816. Schools of mutual education following the method of Behl and Lancaster began to spread. In 1813, the Bible Society was founded, to which the sovereign soon provided significant financial benefits. In 1814, the Imperial Public Library was opened in St. Petersburg. Private citizens followed the government's lead. Gr. Rumyantsev constantly donated funds for the printing of sources (for example, for the publication of Russian chronicles - 25,000 rubles) and scientific research. At the same time, journalistic and literary activities developed greatly. Already in 1803, the Ministry of Public Education published a “periodic essay on the successes of public education,” and the Ministry of Internal Affairs published the St. Petersburg Journal (since 1804). But these official publications did not have the same importance as they received: “Bulletin of Europe” (from 1802) by M. Kachenovsky and N. Karamzin, “Son of the Fatherland” by N. Grech (from 1813), “Notes of the Fatherland” by P. Svinin (from 1818), "Siberian Bulletin" by G. Spassky (1818-1825), "Northern Archive" by F. Bulgarin (1822-1838), which later merged with "Son of the Fatherland". The publications of the Moscow Society of History and Antiquities, founded back in 1804, were distinguished by their scholarly character. (“Proceedings” and “Chronicles”, as well as “Russian monuments” - since 1815). At the same time, V. Zhukovsky, I. Dmitriev and I. Krylov, V. Ozerov and A. Griboyedov acted, the sad sounds of Batyushkov’s lyre were heard, the mighty voice of Pushkin was already heard and Baratynsky’s poems began to be published. Meanwhile, Karamzin published his “History of the Russian State,” and A. Shletser, N. Bantysh-Kamensky, K. Kalaidovich, A. Vostokov, Evgeniy Bolkhovitinov (Metropolitan of Kiev), M. Kachenovsky, G. were engaged in the development of more specific issues of historical science. Evers. Unfortunately, this mental movement was subjected to repressive measures, partly under the influence of the unrest that occurred abroad and was echoed to a small extent in the Russian troops, partly due to the increasingly religious-conservative direction that the sovereign’s own way of thinking was taking. On August 1, 1822, all secret societies were prohibited; in 1823, it was not allowed to send young people to some of the German universities. In May 1824, the management of the Ministry of Public Education was entrusted to the famous adherent of Old Russian literary legends, Admiral A. S. Shishkov; Since that time, the Bible Society has ceased to meet and censorship conditions have been significantly constrained.

Emperor Alexander spent the last years of his life mostly in constant travel to the most remote corners of Russia or in almost complete solitude in Tsarskoe Selo. At this time, the main subject of his concerns was the Greek question. The uprising of the Greeks against the Turks, caused in 1821 by Alexander Ypsilanti, who was in Russian service, and the indignation in Morea and on the islands of the Archipelago caused a protest from Emperor Alexander. But the Sultan did not believe the sincerity of such a protest, and the Turks in Constantinople killed many Christians. Then the Russian ambassador, bar. Stroganov left Constantinople. War was inevitable, but, delayed by European diplomats, it broke out only after the death of the sovereign. Emperor Alexander † November 19, 1825 in Taganrog, where he accompanied his wife Empress Elisaveta Alekseevna to improve her health.

The attitude of Emperor Alexander to the Greek question was quite clearly reflected in the features of the third stage of development that the political system he created experienced in the last decade of his reign. This system initially grew out of abstract liberalism; the latter gave way to political altruism, which in turn transformed into religious conservatism.

The most important works on the history of Emperor Alexander I: M. Bogdanovich,"The History of Emperor Alexander I", vol. VI (St. Petersburg, 1869-1871); S. Soloviev,"Emperor Alexander the First. Politics - Diplomacy" (St. Petersburg, 1877); A. Hadler,“Emperor Alexander the First and the idea of ​​the Holy Alliance” (Riga, IV volume, 1885-1868); H. Putyata,"Review of the life and reign of Emperor Alexander I" (in "Historical collection." 1872, No. 1, pp. 426-494); Schilder,"Russia in its relations to Europe during the reign of Emperor Alexander I, 1806-1815." (in "Russian Star.", 1888); N. Varadinov,"Historical Ministry of Internal Affairs" (parts I-III, St. Petersburg, 1862); A. Semenov,“Study of historical information about Russian trade” (St. Petersburg, 1859, part II, pp. 113-226); M. Semevsky,“The Peasant Question” (2 vols., St. Petersburg, 1888); I. Dityatin,"The structure and management of cities in Russia" (2 volumes, 1875-1877); A. Pypin,"The Social Movement under Alexander I" (St. Petersburg, 1871).

(Brockhaus)

(1777-1825) - ascended the throne in 1801, son of Paul I, grandson of Catherine II. Grandmother's favorite, A. was brought up “in the spirit of the 18th century,” as this spirit was understood by the nobility of that time. In terms of physical education, they tried to stay “close to nature,” which gave A. a temper that was very useful for his future camping life. As for education, it was entrusted to Rousseau’s fellow countryman, the Swiss Laharpe, a “republican”, so tactful, however, that he did not have any clashes with the court nobility of Catherine II, that is, with the serf-owning landowners. From La Harpe, A. acquired the habit of “republican” phrases, which again helped a lot when he needed to show off his liberalism and win over public opinion. As a matter of fact, A. has never been a republican, or even a liberal. Flogging and shooting seemed to him natural means of control, and in this respect he was superior to many of his generals [an example can be famous phrase: “There will be military settlements, even if the road from St. Petersburg to Chudov has to be paved with corpses,” said almost simultaneously with another statement: “No matter what they say about me, I lived and will die as a republican.”]

Catherine had in mind to bequeath the throne directly to A., bypassing Paul, but she died before she had time to formalize her wish. When Paul ascended the throne in 1796, A. found himself in the position of an unsuccessful contender in relation to his father. This should immediately create unbearable relationships in the family. Pavel suspected his son all the time, rushed around with a plan to put him in the fortress, in a word, at every step the story of Peter and Alexei Petrovich could be repeated. But Paul was incomparably smaller than Peter, and A. was much larger, smarter and more cunning than his ill-fated son. Alexei Petrovich was only suspected of conspiracy, but A. actually organized conspiracies against his father: Pavel fell victim to the second of them (March 11/23, 1801). A. did not personally take part in the murder, but his name was mentioned to the conspirators at the decisive moment, and his adjutant and closest friend Volkonsky was among the killers. Parricide was the only way out in the current situation, but the tragedy of March 11 still had a strong impact on A.’s psyche, partially preparing the way for the mysticism of his last days.

A.'s policy was determined, however, not by his moods, but by the objective conditions of his accession to the throne. Paul persecuted and persecuted the large nobility, the court servants of Catherine, whom he hated. In the early years, A. relied on people from this circle, although he despised them in his soul (“these insignificant people,” the French envoy was once told about them). A., however, did not give the aristocratic constitution that the “nobility” wanted, cleverly playing on the contradictions within the “nobility” itself. He followed her lead in his foreign policy, concluding an alliance against Napoleonic France with England, the main consumer of the products of the noble estates and the main supplier of luxury goods for large landowners. When the alliance led to the double defeat of Russia, in 1805 and 1807, A. was forced to make peace, thereby breaking with the “nobility.” A situation was developing that was reminiscent of the last years of his father’s life. In St. Petersburg, “they talked about the murder of the emperor, as they talk about rain or good weather” (report of the French ambassador Caulaincourt to Napoleon). A. tried to hold on for several years, relying on that layer that was later called “commoners” and on the industrial bourgeoisie that was rising, thanks precisely to the break with England. A former seminarian connected with bourgeois circles, the son of a rural priest, Speransky became Secretary of State and, in fact, first minister. He composed a draft bourgeois constitution, reminiscent of the “fundamental laws” of 1906. But the severance of relations with England amounted, in fact, to the cessation of all foreign trade and put the main economic force of the era - merchant capital - against Australia; the newborn industrial bourgeoisie was still too weak to serve as a support. By the spring of 1812, A. surrendered, Speransky was exiled, and the “nobility”, represented by those created - formally according to Speransky’s project, but in fact from social elements hostile to the latter - state council, returned to power again.

The natural consequence was new union with England and a new break with France - the so-called. "Patriotic War" (1812-14). After the first failures new war A. almost "retired to privacy". He lived in St. Petersburg, in the Kamennoostrovsky Palace, almost never showing himself anywhere. “You are not in any danger,” his sister (and at the same time one of his favorites) Ekaterina Pavlovna wrote to him, “but you can imagine the situation of the country , the head of which is despised." The unforeseen catastrophe of Napoleon's "Great Army", which lost 90% of its strength in Russia from hunger and frost, and the subsequent uprising of central Europe against Napoleon, unexpectedly radically changed A.'s personal position. From being despised even by his own by those close to him, the loser, he turned into the victorious leader of the entire anti-Napoleonic coalition, into the “king of kings.” On March 31, 1814, at the head of the allied armies, A. solemnly entered Paris - in Europe there was no man more influential than him. This could have made even the stronger head; A., being neither a fool nor a coward, like some the last Romanov, yet he was a man of average intelligence and character. He now first of all strives to maintain his position of power in the West. Europe, not realizing that he got it by chance and that he played the role of a tool in the hands of the British. To this end, he seizes Poland, seeks to make it a springboard for a new campaign of Russian armies at any moment to the west; in order to ensure the reliability of this bridgehead, he courtes in every possible way the Polish bourgeoisie and Polish landowners, gives Poland a constitution, which he violates every day, turning against himself both the Poles with his insincerity, and the Russian landowners in whom. The "patriotic" war greatly raised nationalist sentiments - with its clear preference for Poland. Feeling his ever-increasing alienation from Russian “society”, in which non-noble elements then played an insignificant role, A. tries to rely on people “personally devoted”, which they turn out to be, Ch. arr., "Germans", i.e., Baltic and partly Prussian nobles, and among the Russians - the rude soldier Arakcheev, by origin almost the same plebeian as Speransky, but without any constitutional projects. The crowning of the building was to be the creation of a uniform oprichnina, a special military caste, represented by the so-called. military settlements. All this terribly teased both the class and national pride Russian landowners, creating a favorable atmosphere for a conspiracy against A. himself - a conspiracy much deeper and more serious politically than the one that ended his father on March 11/23, 1801 . The plan for A.’s murder was already completely worked out, and the moment of the murder was set for maneuvers in the summer of 1826, but on November 19 (Dec. 1) of the previous 1825, A. unexpectedly died in Taganrog from a malignant fever, which he contracted in the Crimea, where he traveled while preparing for war with Turkey and the capture of Constantinople; By realizing this dream of all the Romanovs, starting with Catherine, A. hoped to brilliantly end his reign. However, it was up to his younger brother and heir, Nikolai Pavlovich, to carry out this campaign without capturing Constantinople, who also had to pursue a more “national” policy, abandoning too broad Western plans. From his nominal wife, Elizaveta Alekseevna, A. did not have children - but he had countless of them from his regular and occasional favorites. According to his friend Volkonsky mentioned above (not to be confused with the Decembrist), A. had connections with women in every city where he stopped. As we saw above, he did not leave the women of his own family alone, having a very close relationship with one of his own sisters. In this respect, he was a true grandson of his grandmother, who counted dozens of favorites. But Catherine retained a clear mind until the end of her life, while A. in recent years showed all the signs of religious insanity. It seemed to him that “the Lord God” was interfering in every little detail of his life; even, for example, a successful review of the troops brought him into religious emotion. On this basis, he became close to the then famous religious charlatan, Mrs. Krudener(cm.); In connection with these same sentiments is the form that he gave to his domination over Europe - the formation of the so-called. Holy Alliance.

Lit.: Non-Marxist lit.: Bogdanovich, M. N., History of the reign of Alexander I and Russia in his time, 6 vols., St. Petersburg, 1869-71; Schilder, N.K., Alexander I, 4 vols., St. Petersburg, 2nd ed., 1904; him, Alexander I (in the Russian Biographical Dictionary, vol. 1); b. led Prince Nikolai Mikhailovich, Emperor Alexander I, ed. 2, St. Petersburg; his, Correspondence of Alexander I with his sister Ekaterina Pavlovna, St. Petersburg, 1910; by him, Count P. A. Stroganov, 3 vols., St. Petersburg, 1903; his, Empress Ekaterina Alekseevna, 3 vols., St. Petersburg, 1908; Schiemann, Geschichte Russlands unter Kaiser Nicolaus I, B. I. Kaiser Alexander I und die Ergebnisse seiner Lebensarbeit, Berlin. 1901 (this entire first volume is dedicated to the era of A. I); Schiller, Histoire intime de la Russie sous les empereurs Alexandre et Nicolas, 2 v., Paris; Mémoires du prince Adam Czartorysky et sa correspondance avec l "empereur Alexandre I, 2 t., P., 1887 (there is a Russian translation, M., 1912 and 1913). Marxist lit.: Pokrovsky, M. N., Russian history from ancient times, vol. III (several editions); his, Alexander I (History of Russia in the 19th century, ed. Granat, vol. 1, pp. 31-66).

M. Pokrovsky. Dictionary of personal names

It’s not simple, because he ascended the throne after the murder of his father, and became famous not only for holding the highest position in the state.

Read more about his life and work in the article.

Emperor Alexander I Pavlovich

Childhood, upbringing and education

On December 12, 1777, All-Russian autocrat Alexander Pavlovich Romanov was born in St. Petersburg. From early childhood he was instilled with a love for various sciences and military affairs.

It is noteworthy that his grandmother, Catherine II, wanted to see her grandson Alexander on the throne, because she considered her own son Paul not a very good candidate for governing the state.

And this is not surprising, because many of Alexander’s character traits were similar to those of Catherine, who was actively involved in raising her grandson in Tsarskoe Selo.

From his youth, Alexander I showed outstanding mental abilities.

In life he was a man of liberal views.

At the same time, one cannot help but note the fact that he was lazy to engage in serious activities for a long time, requiring perseverance and long-term concentration.

Personal life

On September 17, 1793, the emperor married Elizaveta Alekseevna. After some time, he began to serve in the Gatchina troops and already in 1796 received the rank of colonel of the guard.

A year later, Alexander I became commander of the Capital Division and performed a number of other duties, and already in 1798 he sat in the Senate.

Alexander as heir

Having received a good upbringing and education in childhood, Alexander had his own views and ideas, which were fundamentally different from the worldview of his father, Pavel.

Heated arguments and even quarrels often arose between the son and his parent.

On March 12, 1801, a sharp turn occurred in the biography of Alexander I. On this day, a Palace coup took place in St. Petersburg, in which Paul was killed, and Alexander I became Emperor of Russia.

Reforms of Alexander I

At the very beginning of his reign, Alexander seriously took up political reforms within the state. He signed an amnesty law that freed many freethinkers imprisoned during his father's reign.

In many ways, the autocrat’s goal was the desire to weaken the oppression of serfdom. So, in 1803 he issued a decree on free cultivators. Now the landowners could free their peasants along with their land allotments.

A special merit of Alexander I was the reform concerning the development of education. For example, Moscow State University received good funding, and later the famous Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum was inaugurated.

Speransky's projects

One of the closest assistants of Alexander I was Mikhail Speransky. It was he who developed the ministerial reform, according to which new ministries came to replace ineffective collegiums. This became an important milestone in the biography of Alexander I.

In 1809, a bill on separation of powers was created. However, given the fact that Alexander was afraid of grumbling from the aristocracy, he did not give this project development.

After some time, Speransky was removed from his position.

Alexander's foreign policy

Under Alexander I, Russia joined the anti-French coalition. Over time, the situation changed, and the emperor personally met with him to improve relations.

They concluded the Peace of Tilsit between the countries, according to which neutrality was established between Russia and France.

This allowed the Russian Empire to annex Moldova and Finland to its territories, which ultimately happened.

However, as a result of which the Patriotic War began.

Despite the fact that the French managed to win many victories and reach , Bonaparte, having lost all his resources and people, had to leave Russia in disgrace.

During this period of his biography, during a campaign abroad, Alexander I personally led the army. He not only triumphantly entered Paris with his army, but also became a hero for all of Europe.

A little later, at the Congress of Vienna, the fate of the entire continent was decided. A new repartition of Europe was obvious to the rulers. As a result of the diplomatic confrontation between the parties, Poland was annexed to Russia.

Last years

The last years of the biography of Alexander I were no longer as bright as before. At the end of his life, like his father, he became very interested in mysticism, and then became seriously ill.

Alexander I died in Taganrog in 1825. Unfortunately, he left no offspring, which was the reason for the famous Decembrist uprising.

As a result, the younger brother of Alexander I, Nicholas, ascended the Russian throne.

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Name: Alexander I (Alexander Pavlovich Romanov)

Age: 47 years old

Activity: Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia

Family status: was married

Alexander I: biography

Emperor Alexander I Pavlovich, sometimes mistakenly called Tsar Alexander I, ascended the throne in 1801 and ruled for almost a quarter of a century. Russia under Alexander I fought successful wars against Turkey, Persia and Sweden, and was later drawn into the War of 1812 when Napoleon attacked the country. During the reign of Alexander I, the territory expanded due to the annexation of Eastern Georgia, Finland, Bessarabia and part of Poland. For all the transformations introduced by Alexander I, he was called Alexander the Blessed.

The biography of Alexander I was initially supposed to be outstanding. Not only was he the eldest son of the emperor and his wife Maria Feodorovna, but his grandmother doted on her grandson. It was she who gave the boy a sonorous name in honor and, in the hope that Alexander would create history following the example of his legendary namesakes. It is worth noting that the name itself was unusual for the Romanovs, and only after the reign of Alexander I it firmly entered the family nomenclature.

The personality of Alexander I was formed under the tireless supervision of Catherine the Great. The fact is that the empress initially considered the son of Paul I incapable of taking the throne and wanted to crown her grandson “over the head” of his father. The grandmother tried to ensure that the boy had almost no contact with his parents, however, Pavel had influence on his son and he adopted from him a love for military science. The young heir grew up affectionate, smart, easily absorbed new knowledge, but at the same time he was very lazy and proud, which is why Alexander I was unable to learn to concentrate on painstaking and lengthy work.

Contemporaries of Alexander I noted that he had a very lively mind, incredible insight and was easily attracted to everything new. But since he was actively influenced from childhood by two opposing natures, his grandmother and his father, the child was forced to learn to please absolutely everyone, which became the main characteristic of Alexander I. Even Napoleon called him an “actor” in a good sense, and Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin wrote about Emperor Alexander “in the face and life of a harlequin.”

Passionate about military affairs, the future Emperor Alexander I served in the Gatchina troops, which his father personally formed. The service resulted in deafness in the left ear, but this did not prevent Paul I from promoting his son to colonel of the guard when he was only 19 years old. A year later, the ruler’s son became the military governor of St. Petersburg and headed the Semenovsky Guards Regiment, then Alexander I briefly presided over the military parliament, after which he began to sit in the Senate.

Reign of Alexander I

Emperor Alexander I ascended the throne immediately after the violent death of his father. A number of facts confirm that he was aware of the plans of the conspirators to overthrow Paul I, although he may not have suspected the regicide. It was the new head of the Russian Empire who announced the “apoplectic stroke” that struck his father, literally a few minutes after his death. In September 1801, Alexander I was crowned.

The very first decrees of Alexander I showed that he intended to eradicate judicial arbitrariness in the state and introduce strict legality. Today it seems incredible, but at that time there were practically no strict fundamental laws in Russia. Together with his closest associates, the emperor formed a secret committee with which he discussed all plans for state transformation. This community was called the Committee of Public Safety, and is also known as the Social Movement of Alexander I.

Reforms of Alexander I

Immediately after Alexander I came to power, the transformations became visible to the naked eye. His reign is usually divided into two parts: at first, the reforms of Alexander I occupied all his time and thoughts, but after 1815, the emperor became disillusioned with them and began a reactionary movement, that is, on the contrary, he squeezed people in a vice. One of the most important reforms was the creation of the “Indispensable Council”, which was later transformed into the State Council with several departments. The next step is the creation of ministries. If previously decisions on any issues were made by a majority vote, now a separate minister was responsible for each industry, who regularly reported to the head of state.

The reforms of Alexander I also affected the peasant issue, at least on paper. The emperor thought about abolishing serfdom, but wanted to do it gradually, and could not determine the steps of such a slow liberation. As a result, the decrees of Alexander I on “free cultivators” and the ban on selling peasants without the land on which they live turned out to be a drop in the bucket. But Alexander’s transformations in the field of education became more significant. By his order, a clear gradation of educational institutions was created according to the level of the educational program: parish and district schools, provincial schools and gymnasiums, universities. Thanks to the activities of Alexander I, the Academy of Sciences was restored in St. Petersburg, the famous Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum was created and five new universities were founded.

But the sovereign’s naive plans for the rapid transformation of the country encountered opposition from the nobles. He could not quickly implement his reforms for fear of a palace coup, plus the wars occupied the attention of Alexander 1. Therefore, despite good intentions and the desire to carry out reforms, the emperor was unable to realize all his desires. In fact, besides educational and government reform, the only thing of interest is the Constitution of Poland, which the ruler’s associates considered as a prototype for the future Constitution of the entire Russian Empire. But the turn domestic policy Alexander I's reaction buried all the hopes of the liberal nobility.

Politics of Alexander I

The starting point for a change of opinion about the need for reform was the war with Napoleon. The Emperor realized that in the conditions that he wanted to create, rapid mobilization of the army was impossible. Therefore, Emperor Alexander 1 shifted his policy from liberal ideas to the interests of state security. A new reform is being developed, which has proven to be the most successful: military reforms.

With the help of the Minister of War, a project for a completely new type of life is being created - a military settlement, which represented a new class. Without particularly burdening the country's budget, it was intended to maintain and staff a standing army at wartime levels. The growth in the number of such military districts continued throughout the years of the reign of Alexander I. Moreover, they were preserved under his successor Nicholas I and were abolished only by the emperor.

Wars of Alexander I

In fact, the foreign policy of Alexander I boiled down to a series of constant wars, thanks to which the territory of the country increased significantly. After the end of the war with Persia, Alexander I's Russia gained military control of the Caspian Sea, and also expanded its possessions by annexing Georgia. After the Russian-Turkish War, the Empire's possessions were replenished by Bessarabia and all the states of Transcaucasia, and after the conflict with Sweden - by Finland. In addition, Alexander I fought with England, Austria and began Caucasian war, which did not end during his lifetime.

Russia's main military adversary under Emperor Alexander I was France. Their first armed conflict occurred back in 1805, which, despite periodic peace agreements, constantly flared up again. Finally, inspired by his fantastic victories, Napoleon Bonaparte sent troops into Russian territory. The Patriotic War of 1812 began. After the victory, Alexander I entered into an alliance with England, Prussia and Austria and made a series of foreign campaigns, during which he defeated Napoleon’s army and forced him to abdicate the throne. After this, the Kingdom of Poland also went to Russia.

When the French army found itself on the territory of the Russian Empire, Alexander I declared himself commander-in-chief and forbade peace negotiations until at least one enemy soldier remained on Russian soil. But the numerical advantage of Napoleon's army was so great that Russian troops constantly retreated deeper into the country. Soon the emperor agrees that his presence is disturbing the military leaders, and leaves for St. Petersburg. Mikhail Kutuzov, who was highly respected by soldiers and officers, became the commander-in-chief, but most importantly, this man had already proven himself to be an excellent strategist.

And in the Patriotic War of 1812, Kutuzov again showed his keen mind as a military tactician. He planned a decisive battle near the village of Borodino and positioned the army so successfully that it was covered from two flanks natural relief, and the commander-in-chief placed artillery in the center. The battle was desperate and bloody, with huge losses on both sides. The Battle of Borodino is considered a historical paradox: both armies declared victory in the battle.

To keep his troops in combat readiness, Mikhail Kutuzov decides to leave Moscow. The result was the burning of the former capital and its occupation by the French, but Napoleon's victory in this case turned out to be Pirova. In order to feed his army, he was forced to move to Kaluga, where Kutuzov had already concentrated his forces and did not allow the enemy to go further. Moreover, partisan detachments delivered effective blows to the invaders. Deprived of food and unprepared for the Russian winter, the French began to retreat. The final battle near the Berezina River put an end to the defeat, and Alexander I issued a Manifesto about the victorious end Patriotic War.

Personal life

In his youth, Alexander was very friendly with his sister Ekaterina Pavlovna. Some sources even hinted at a relationship closer than just brotherly and sisterly. But these speculations are very unlikely, since Catherine was 11 years younger, and at the age of 16, Alexander I had already connected his personal life with his wife. He married a German woman, Louise Maria Augusta, who, after converting to Orthodoxy, became Elizaveta Alekseevna. They had two daughters, Maria and Elizabeth, but both died at the age of one, so it was not the children of Alexander I who became the heir to the throne, but his younger brother Nicholas I.

Due to the fact that his wife was unable to give him a son, the relationship between the emperor and his wife cooled greatly. He practically did not hide his love relationship on the side. At first, Alexander I cohabited for almost 15 years with Maria Naryshkina, the wife of Chief Jägermeister Dmitry Naryshkin, whom all the courtiers called “an exemplary cuckold” to his face. Maria gave birth to six children, and the paternity of five of them is usually attributed to Alexander. However, most of these children died in infancy. Alexander I also had an affair with the daughter of the court banker Sophie Velho and with Sofia Vsevolozhskaya, who gave birth to an illegitimate son from him, Nikolai Lukash, a general and war hero.

In 1812, Alexander I became interested in reading the Bible, although before that he was basically indifferent to religion. But him, like best friend Alexander Golitsyn was not satisfied with the framework of Orthodoxy alone. The emperor was in correspondence with Protestant preachers, studied mysticism and various movements Christian faith and sought to unite all faiths in the name of “universal truth.” Russia under Alexander I became more tolerant than ever before. The official church was outraged by this turn and began a secret behind-the-scenes struggle against like-minded people of the emperor, including Golitsyn. Victory remained with the church, which did not want to lose power over the people.

Emperor Alexander I died in early December 1825 in Taganrog, during another trip that he loved very much. The official cause of death of Alexander I was fever and inflammation of the brain. The sudden death of the ruler caused a wave of rumors, spurred by the fact that shortly before, Emperor Alexander drew up a manifesto in which he transferred the right of succession to the throne to his younger brother Nikolai Pavlovich.

People began to say that the emperor falsified his death and became the hermit Fyodor Kuzmich. This legend was very popular during the lifetime of this truly existing old man, and in the 19th century it received additional argumentation. The fact is that it was possible to compare the handwriting of Alexander I and Fyodor Kuzmich, which turned out to be almost identical. Moreover, today genetic scientists have a real project to compare the DNA of these two people, but so far this examination has not been carried out.

Alexander (Blessed) I – Emperor of the Russian Empire, who reigned from 1801 to 1825. The autocrat tried to maneuver between France and Great Britain and expanded the territory of his state. His domestic and foreign policies were aimed at improving public administration and gaining international prestige.

The reign of Alexander 1 became an important stage in our history. Russia under Alexander emerged victorious from the war with Napoleon and underwent a number of serious changes.

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Early years and beginning of reign

The future tsar was born on December 23, 1777 and was named Alexander by his grandmother - in honor of the hero and famous prince Alexander Nevsky. His teachers were Nikolai Saltykov and Frederic Cesar. Huge influence on the formation of the personality of the future ruler provided by his grandmother. He spent his entire childhood with Catherine II - away from his parents.

Alexander ascended the throne immediately after killing his father. The conspirators, among whom were diplomat Nikita Panin, General Nikolai Zubov and his closest associate Peter Palen, were dissatisfied with his unpredictable decisions in foreign and domestic policy. Historians still do not know whether the future emperor knew about the murder of his father.

March 24, 1801 Alexander becomes emperor- a few hours after the overthrow of Paul I. Upon his accession to the throne, the emperor pardoned thousands of people who were convicted at the whim of his father.

The Russian Tsar also wanted to quickly improve relations with Great Britain and Austria, which had suffered seriously under the previous ruler, who acted impulsively and unwisely. Six months later, the young emperor restored the former alliance relations and even signed a peace treaty with the French.

Domestic policy

Features of the tsar's domestic policy are largely caused by his associates. Even before ascending the throne, he surrounded himself with smart and talented people, among whom were Count Kochubey, Count Stroganov, Count Novosiltsev and Prince Czartoryski. With their help, the emperor wanted transform the state, for which the Secret Committee was created.

Secret committee - government agency, which was unofficial and existed from 1801 to 1803.

The main directions of the domestic policy of the Russian sovereign were to carry out the so-called liberal reforms, which were supposed to turn Russia to a new country. Under his leadership the following were carried out:

• reform of central government bodies;
• financial reform;
• education reform.

In addition to the above reforms, it was planned to eliminate the estates, but this did not happen due to lack of support in higher circles.

Attention! Alexander planned by issuing decrees that reduced injustice against serfs.

If you are asked: “Give a general assessment of the internal policy of Alexander 1,” you can answer that at first he took all the necessary steps that would turned an empire into a modern state of European standards. The main achievements of the tsar were reforms in the field of education and the creation of centralized government bodies, among which he played an important role Unspoken committee. Attempts to abolish serfdom should also be considered positive.

However, internal activities in the second half of the reign cause negative assessments among historians. Under Alexander 1, taxes were significantly increased and military reform was carried out, which caused even more sharp reaction in the empire.

Thus, we can highlight the following features of the internal policy of Alexander I:

• liberal reforms in the initial stages of government, which had a positive effect in the process of development of the Russian Empire;
• the desire to create a state according to European standards;
• a number of unsuccessful reforms in the financial and military spheres;
• cooling towards any kind of reforms in the second half of the reign;
• complete renunciation of government at the end of life.

Foreign policy

In the first years of the reign, vector foreign policy Alexandra 1 was sent to eliminate the threat from Napoleon's side. In 1805, our country became a member of the Third Anti-French Coalition, which also included Great Britain, Austria, the Kingdom of Naples and Sweden.

The Tsar personally led the Russian army. His mismanagement and lack of military experience led to defeat of the united army Austrians and Russians at the Battle of Austerlitz. This battle went down in history as the “Battle of Three Emperors.” Napoleon inflicted a crushing defeat on his opponents and forced the Russian army to leave Austria.

In 1806, Prussia declared war on France, after which Alexander violated the terms of the peace treaty and also sent an army against Napoleon. In 1807 the French Emperor defeats opponents, and Alexander is forced to negotiate.

After his defeat in 1807, Alexander was forced, under pressure from Napoleon, to declare war on Sweden. Without an official statement about the start of hostilities, the Russian army crosses the Swedish border.

The beginning of the war for Alexander was disastrous, but during the fighting a radical change occurred, which led to the victory of the Russian Empire in 1809. As a result of the agreement, the Swedes joined the continental blockade against the British, entered into an alliance with the Russian Empire and ceded Finland to that country.

In 1812, Napoleon invades Russia. Alexander 1 announces about the beginning of the Patriotic War. During the fighting and under the influence of severe frosts, Napoleon suffered a crushing defeat, losing most of his army.

After Napoleon's flight, the emperor takes part in the attack on France. In 1814 he entered Paris as a victor. During this time, Alexander I represented the interests of Russia.

results

The foreign policy of Alexander 1 can be briefly formulated in one phrase - the desire for geographical expansion of the empire's space. During the years of his reign, the following territories were included in the state:

• Western and Eastern Georgia;
• Finland;
• Imereti (Georgia);
• Mingrelia (Georgia);
• most of the territory of Poland;
• Bessarabia.

In general, the results of the tsar’s international actions were positive value for the further development of the role of the Russian state in the international arena.

Last stage of life

In his last years the emperor lost all interest to state affairs. His indifference was so deep that he repeatedly said that he was ready to abdicate the throne.

Shortly before his death, he issues a secret manifesto, in which he transfers the right to inherit the throne to his younger brother Nikolai. Alexander I dies in 1825 in Taganrog. His death raised a lot of questions.

At the age of 47, the emperor was practically not ill, and no one wanted to recognize such a quick death as natural.

Attention! There is an opinion that the emperor faked his death and became a hermit.

Results of the reign

During the first period of his reign the emperor was energetic and wanted to carry out a wide series of reforms that would change Russian Empire. His policy was initially characterized by activity. Changes in the government and educational spheres have been successful. Financial reform saved the country from crisis, but caused discontent, however, like the military one. Russia under Alexander 1 was not freed from serfdom, although the emperor understood that this step was already inevitable.

Foreign and domestic policy

Conclusion on the topic

The results of the foreign policy of Alexander I were of great importance for the future of the country, since the territory of the empire was expanded and authority was gained in the international arena. The achievements of the beginning of the reign were largely negated in the last years of the emperor's life. His indifference led to growing crisis, prompted the Decembrist movement and caused the creation of secret societies. After his death the emperor becomes Nikolai's younger brother, subsequently named .