Few people know that one of the most terrible prisons is located in the sunny tropics South America. The colony of French Guiana was considered a terrible hard labor from which few people managed to escape. Now it is a popular tourist attraction.

Former hard labor Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni located in the most picturesque place in South America. This is a settlement in the middle tropical forests It looks too clean and tidy for a place where the most dangerous criminals of the 19th-20th centuries were imprisoned.

A penal colony along the Maroni River was opened in 1850 by order of Napoleon III. For almost 100 years, between 1852 and 1946, 70 thousand prisoners lived and worked in Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni. One of the most famous convicts is Alfred Dreyfus, a French officer wrongly accused of treason.

The horrors of Saint-Laurent-de-Maroni were told to the world by the Frenchman Henri Charrière, who wrote a book of memoirs, Papillon, about his imprisonment and escape. It was made into a Hollywood film starring Steve McQueen.

Thanks to Charrière's book, details of the terrible life of prisoners in the colony, their torment in damp, dark cells, including solitary confinement on Devil's Island, became known. The sinister tropical camp became associated with brutal living conditions, corporal punishment, filth and abuse of power.

In Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni, convict prisoners worked from 6 am to 6 pm. From local red clay they built their homes, the entire infrastructure and all the buildings of the colony: hospitals, court, prison, as well as the railway to another colony, Saint-Jean. The severity of the work varied depending on the length of each criminal's sentence. Therefore, some built roads, felled timber, cut sugar cane and erected concrete walls, while others worked in the prison garden or cleaned the premises.

The prisoners also lived differently. Some had their own huts with small plots of land. Those who committed more serious crimes slept in the barracks, lying in dozens in a row on a concrete “bed.” At night they were shackled with metal shackles, which made it impossible for them to turn around. The personal space of prisoners was limited in every possible way. You could even wash yourself only in the open air.

The most dangerous repeat offenders had their own claustrophobic cages measuring approximately 1.8 by 2 meters. The prisoners slept on planks with a wooden block for a pillow and with shackles on their legs.

So large cluster prisoners living in cramped conditions were not without clashes and deaths. But in most cases, no one was punished, because for this it was necessary to conduct an official investigation and fill out documents. The guards allowed natural selection to take its course: the weakest died in fights, from hard daily work, tropical diseases or unsuccessful escape attempts.

If a jailer was injured, a guillotine was placed next to the barracks. The execution was carried out by two prisoners, while the official uttered the words: “Justice serves in the name of the Republic.”

Escape attempts usually ended in failure. The prisoners could easily leave the prison territory, but then they had to overcome the wild thickets tropical forest. If the fugitives managed to get to Suriname or Venezuela, local authorities still sent them to camps.

The convicts who had served their time still remained in Guiana. In order to cleanse France of the “undesirable element”, as well as to repopulate the colony, those released were required to live in the vicinity of the prison for another five years. At this time, they independently earned money for an expensive ticket home to the metropolis.

The past decades have not been kind to the settlement of Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni. Indeed, in tropical conditions, buildings deteriorate very quickly. Moisture causes wood to rot, and fast-growing trees destroy masonry. The prison town was restored in 1980, after which it became a historical monument. These days, standing on the central courtyard in the shade big tree mango, it’s hard to believe the horrors that happened here.

While French Guiana was used primarily as a prison, other countries' overseas possessions were actively developing. Look amazing

Screenshot of a video report about the prisons of Madagascar and the risk of infection.

Conditions for prisoners vary significantly around the world. In this article I would like to focus on two states and conduct a comparative analysis of the prisons of Madagascar and France. A large number of blogs and social media highlight prison conditions in the two countries, criminal sentencing and corrections policies, and their real-world consequences. These sites also give voice to daily witnesses of prison life: prisoners and their relatives whom they see in the meeting room, those whose profession is related to the correctional system and those who work in the field of criminal law.

It is easy to imagine that prison conditions in the two selected countries differ significantly, but they also have some similarities. Many websites provide descriptions of life in Malagasy prisons. Virginie de Galzen is a freelance photojournalist who was able to visit several Malagasy prisons in 2012 (as part of a Doctors Without Borders mission). She says the following [French]:

Des espaces surpeuplés datant le plus souvent de la colonisation, des odeurs d'urine qui vous prennent à la gorge et vous imprègnent à peine la porte des “dortoirs” franchie, la menace récurrente de la peste en raison d'une forte présence de rats (voir vidéo ci-dessous) et de puces, un nombre important de décès faute d'alimentation suffisante et de soins, des droits humains non respectés… Telle est la situation insupportable des prisons de Madagascar

In most cases, these are crowded premises, often built during colonial times; As soon as you enter the “sleeping chambers”, the pungent smell of urine hits your nose. There is a constant threat of the spread of infection due to the huge number of rats (see video below) and fleas; big number prisoners die due to insufficient food and care, human rights are not respected... These are the unbearable living conditions in the prisons of Madagascar.

Les prisons sont surpeuplées. Les détenus dorment à même des sortes de longues banquettes superposées et composées de planches en bois plus ou moins disjointes dont la longueur, bien inférieure à celle d'un homme, ne permet pas de s'allonger. C'est en plus souvent là qu'ils mettent leurs rares effets personnels. Entassés les uns contre les autres, ils doivent parfois faire des tours de sommeil faute de place pour tous. Une des “chambres” de cette prison fait 35 mètres de long et quelques mètres de large. 229 détenus y sont enfermés de 5 heures du soir à 6/7 heures du matin.

The prisons are overcrowded. The prisoners sleep on long benches made of poorly fastened boards, built in tiers, the length of which is much less than human height, so it is impossible to stretch out on them. This is where they most often store their few belongings. Collected in a heap, they are forced to sleep in turns, since there is not enough space for everyone. In one of these “chambers”, 35 meters long and only a few meters wide, 229 people are imprisoned from 5 pm to 6-7 am.

Screenshot of a video report about the prisons of Madagascar, Youtube

A similar situation - neglect of the responsibilities for maintaining prisons and the characteristic structure of the legal system - has developed in Madagascar for a long time. One of the country's most notorious colonies is located on the island of Nozi Lava. Political prisoners and repeat offenders are sent here. Due to successive changes in the political regime and the inattention of the government, many prisoners remain in hard labor for many years and do not know the end date of their sentence. Their stories are told in a report by Régis Michel:

In France, the situation of prisoners is not so critical, but some questions regarding the deteriorating prison conditions have still not been resolved. In 2012, in France there were officially 67,373 prisoners for 57,408 places in correctional institutions.

Le projet est de centraliser toute l’info sur les prisons du monde et la rendre accessible au plus grand nombre. L'information existe mais est disséminée dans de multiples sites sur les prisons. Il reste très difficile d’accéder à une information vulgarisée et dans sa langue. Il y a trois types de besoins auxquels Prison Insider veut répondre:

Un besoin d'informations-service. Pour savoir, par exemple, comment rendre visite à un détenu? comment lui faire parvenir de l'argent ?…
-Un besoin d'informations documentaires. Dans le but de connaître les conditions de détention: combien de détenus par cellule? sont-ils correctement nourris?…
-Un besoin d'un espace pour agir. Pour alerter ou témoigner sur ce que les proches vivent.

The goal of the project is to collect information about prisons around the world in one place and make it accessible to the widest possible public. This information already exists, but it is scattered across many prison websites. It is not easy to find information presented in an accessible way and in a language you understand. Thus, Prison Insider's mission is to provide:

Practical information. For example, what are the rules for visiting a prisoner in prison? How can I give him money? etc.
– Documented information. To give an idea of ​​the conditions of detention: how many prisoners fit in one cell? Are they getting enough nutrition? etc.
– A platform for action. In order to convey information about the life of family and relatives.

International Prison Monitoring Committee [French] a little-known problem of prison life:

Il n"existe en prison qu"un seul lieu, non surveillé, où sont autorisées les relations sexuelles: les unités de vie familiales (UVF). Avoir accès à ces unités est un droit, pour tout détenu. Pourtant, seulement 36 établissements pénitentiaires sur 188 en sont équipés. Les pratiques des personnels penitentiaires sont toutefois très variables. Une ancienne surveillante raconte que les agents en poste au parloir doivent “le vouloir pour vraiment voir.” [..] il y a des surveillants plus compréhensifs, ils ne font pas de ronde pendant les parloirs.” Certains choisissent de ne rien dire: “Une fois, un surveillant nous a surpris.” Mais de la façon dont j'étais habillée, il n'a rien pu voir. Il a juste compris. Il est ensuite parti, rien de plus. Certains surveillants ferment les yeux à partir du moment où c’est discret.” Réussir à voler quelques moments d’intimité dépend ainsi du bon vouloir de chaque surveillant.

There is only one place in prison that is not under surveillance and where sexual relations are permitted: the family unit. Access to it is the right of every prisoner. However, out of 188 correctional institutions, only 36 are equipped with such a department. The attitude of prison workers on this issue is very different. One former prison guard said that observers in the communication chamber “have to try to see something.” Some of them are more understanding, they do not walk between prisoners while they are communicating with visitors. Some prefer not to say anything: “One day the warden took us by surprise. Because of my clothes, he didn’t see anything, he just guessed. He turned around and left, and that was it. Some guards simply turn a blind eye when things get intimate." Thus, such moments of furtive intimacy also depend on the goodwill of each individual overseer.

In everyday life, prisoners also try to maintain sexual relationships, even if they are not alone in the cell. Here's what one of the prisoners says:

À une époque, j'étais dans une cellule de cinq personnes, on était entassé. Les codétenus avaient mis en place une organization spéciale. Chacun pouvait avoir la cellule pour lui tout seul pendant quelques heures. Ils m’ont dit: “Tu ne fais pas n’importe quoi en cellule, interdit d’avoir des pulsions la nuit, etc.” En revanche, une fois dans la semaine, on te laisse tout seul et tu fais ce que tu veux, on ne veut rien savoir.”

Then I was in a cell with five people, we had almost no space. The cellmates agreed on a special schedule: each could control the entire cell for several hours. They warned me: “You behave well, don’t make any noise at night, for this, once a week you remain alone in the cell, and you can do whatever you want, we are not interested in that.”

Numerous associations help improve the life of prisoners, as well as facilitate their rehabilitation. The National Federation of Associations for the Social Rehabilitation of Prisoners (Fédération nationale des associations d'accueil et de réinsertion sociale, FNARS) presents its program aimed at [French]:

La peine judiciaire s’accompagne trop souvent d’une peine sociale; elle ne doit pas être un moyen de régulation sociale, par le bias de la mise à l'écart des personnes condamnées. Les coûts individuels et sociaux de l'incarcération dus aux ruptures qu'elle provoque (perte de travail, ruptures familiales, perte de logement, désinsertion sociale) par rapport aux effets escomptés, passent malheureusement au second plan et demanderaient à être mieux évalués.

Judicial punishment is very often accompanied by social punishment, but it should not become a method of social regulation through the removal of citizens convicted of crimes. The consequences of imprisonment for both the individual and society, associated with separation from life (loss of job, severance of family ties, loss of housing, inability to rehabilitate), unfortunately exceed even formal punishment, this needs to be changed.

Where do juvenile killers end up? In France, teenagers can go to prison from the age of 13. The sentence he imposes is half the possible sentence that would be imposed on an adult offender for a similar crime. But there is one exception.

If a teenager is over 16 years old and is tried by a juvenile jury who finds that the mitigating circumstance of being a minor does not apply, the youth will be tried as an adult.

But juvenile prisons are completely different from similar institutions for adults. Although institutions for minors are part of the country’s penitentiary system, they are managed by representatives of a special organization called “Judicial Protection of Youth” (JPM). SZM is an integral part of the Ministry of Justice. The priority in the execution of punishment for minors is education.

Young criminals can be held in three types of specialized institutions.

Departments for minors in pre-trial detention centers. Inside French prisons there are specially equipped sections for minors. Rules internal regulations in such departments they are more lenient, and the prisoners contained in them are under the joint control of guards and educators. Attendance at school is compulsory for everyone under 16 years of age. Young criminals attend not only school classes, but also various vocational training courses (industrial training).

Such special departments are not available in all prisons, and where they are, according to experts, they are not suitable for serving sentences for minors, since one way or another they are still surrounded by a criminogenic atmosphere with the inherent cruelty of prisons for adults. That is why, following numerous recommendations, special juvenile detention facilities (PJI) were created in 2002. But there are few such institutions, there are not enough places in them, and therefore many juvenile convicts are forced to serve their sentences of imprisonment in specialized departments of pre-trial detention centers.

Juvenile Penitentiary Institutions (PYI), as stated above, were created in 2002 under a bill passed by Parliament called the Perben I Law.

There are six such institutions in France. These prisons are entirely reserved for minors and do not allow adult offenders to be housed there. The very first PUN was opened in 2007, that is, five years after the adoption of the relevant law. According to then-Minister of Justice Pascal Clément, PUNs were to become “just schools surrounded by fences.” These institutions are run entirely by representatives of Youth Justice and have continued education as a priority. Sports events, studies, getting a profession... Unlike adult prisoners in PUN, young offenders are constantly engaged in useful activities.

Closed training centers (CLCs) do not belong to penitentiary institutions. They are educational institutions alternatives to imprisonment. ZUCs are subordinate to the Ministry of Justice.

Established in 2002, these small institutions, designed to house between 8 and 12 (maximum) young people, are in principle intended for young repeat offenders, but can also house juvenile offenders. There are a total of 51 such institutions in France. Minors are required to live here, but prison paraphernalia in these institutions is sharply reduced: for example, instead of prison walls there is a simple fence.

Is the French juvenile criminal justice system optimal? According to Domin Juf, a scholar specializing in juvenile justice, “in last years Considerable efforts have been made in this direction." The separation of minors and adults in prisons is now mandatory, and with the formation of PUNs, prisons appeared in general, intended only for young criminals.

However, since their creation, these juvenile prisons have come under constant criticism. A number of experts, considering them ineffective and expensive, accuse PUNs of being nothing more than a new incarnation of previously existing “correctional houses”. Various human rights organizations indicate that a significant number of suicides among minors occur in PUNs every year.

Belgium: Fifteen prisoners demand euthanasia

After a Belgian court recognized the right to euthanasia for repeat sex offender Frank Van Den Bleeken, fifteen other prisoners demanded the same for themselves.

Is it possible to use euthanasia due to “unbearable mental suffering” in prison? After Belgian justice agreed to hospitalize repeat sex offender Frank Van Den Bleeken for euthanasia, Ulteam, a specialist medical team offering advice to end-of-life patients, reported that 15 more prisoners had done the same. choice. “I don’t think euthanasia among prisoners will become widespread,” said Jacqueline Herremans, a member of the Commission for Monitoring the Application of the Law on Euthanasia (ECPE) and president of the Belgian Association for the Right to Die with Dignity, calmly assessing the current situation. “Each such case is unique and must be considered individually.” Former member of the same Commission, Mr. Fernand Keuliner, however, emphasizes: “This situation raises many questions for us...”

During the trial, Frank Van Den Bleeken was found not responsible for his actions. As a result, he was not “convicted”, but “placed” in prison, where he has been for thirty years and which cannot provide him with specialized treatment. Now 52, ​​he is well aware of his condition and claims that if he is released, he will “immediately and absolutely” reoffend. Since he was not allowed to travel to the Netherlands, where he could receive appropriate treatment in one of the clinics, and, according to his lawyer Jos Van Der Velpen, “the doctors who examined him repeatedly admitted that he was experiencing unbearable suffering,” Frank Van Den Bleeken began to court procedure against the Minister of Justice to obtain the “right to die”.

Even supporters of euthanasia are perplexed by so many of these “unusual requirements”. "When mental illness The decision to use euthanasia cannot always be made! - Chris emphasizes, medical worker from Ulteam. - There are already several cases where the European Court of Human Rights has condemned Belgium for not providing its prisoners with proper psychiatric treatment.

Living conditions in prison are terrible: when you see so many suicide attempts, you come to the conclusion that the number of requests for euthanasia will only increase! The chairman of the ECHR and renowned oncologist, Professor Wim Distelmans, refused to euthanize Frank Van Den Bleeken. “Everyone has the right to palliative care,” he said in an interview with the Flemish newspaper Het Laatste Nieuws. - In the Netherlands, for example, therapeutic treatment is possible. From an ethical point of view, we are following the wrong path if we allow this person to receive euthanasia.”

According to Mr. Keuliner, “the premises in mental asylum- this is often the only solution to be sure: dangerous criminal(even if he is not sick) will never be released again. If he is sent to prison, then we all know that sooner or later he will be released... In addition, you can suffer from a mental disorder at the time of committing the crime, and this makes it difficult to control your actions, and for the next thirty years not experience this mental disorder . And then, who doesn’t have mental disorders? Why then should such a person be considered sick?”

The lawyer protests against this whole “suffering debate.” “It is necessary to look at the specific case of this particular prisoner. "We never asked ourselves whether we could develop new treatments for thousands of other prisoners," he insists. - We just came to the conclusion that this special person has the right to demand euthanasia with the participation of doctors..."

As for the relatives of the victims, they are disgusted by everything that is happening. “All these commissions, doctors, experts spend so much time studying the fate of this killer of our sister! - the sisters of Christiane Remacle, raped and murdered in 1989 when she was 19 years old, are indignant. - Not a single commission cared about us and our relatives. This means that we, and not he, must continue to suffer! This court decision to apply euthanasia to him is completely incomprehensible: he should be where he is now, and not quietly die!”

France: first penitentiary Olympic Games

Dozens of prisoners took part in the first national penitentiaries Olympic Games ah, which took place in the city of Var, located in the south of France, between Marseille and Nice. The purpose of these competitions is to improve relationships and assist in resocialization.

The Penitentiary Olympic Games are a sports competition organized for the first time on a national scale by the Regional Olympic Committee of the Côte d'Azur (ROCLB) and the Ministry of Justice. The closing ceremony on September 26 capped a week of athletic testing in a variety of disciplines, involving minor offenders and prison staff. A total of more than 1,500 participants representing forty prison institutions came to the first national Penitentiary Games.

The idea of ​​holding sports games for prisoners was born in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region (PALB). “For quite some time now we have been trying to organize various sporting events for unemployed youth,” explains Pierre Cambreal, deputy director of ROKLB, responsible for organizing sporting events on the Cote d'Azur.

The Regional Olympic Committee is convinced that sport “is the best way to bring people together socially” and therefore decided to expand its activities by involving prisoners in competitions, since, as the ROCLB believes, sports in prison is “the only activity available to prisoners , not counting reading." The Penitentiary Olympic Games should encourage sports coaches working in prisons to ensure that their activities are not limited to just formal sports events, but actually contribute to the social reintegration of their wards.

At first, in 2012 and 2013, these competitions were held only within one region. But then national authorities drew attention to them, and in 2014 all French penitentiary centers were invited to take part in them on a voluntary basis. As Pierre Cambreal emphasizes, participation is based primarily on a “moral contract”: “The idea is not at all to involve those who do nothing in prisons and do not intend to do anything.” First of all, those who have motivation are selected. And of course, “legal selection” plays a big role.

Regional penitentiary services for resocialization and probation thoroughly studied the personal files of the candidates, and then each, on an individual basis, was granted the right to temporarily travel to the Cote d'Azur. As Pierre Cambreal explains, we are, of course, not talking about those sentenced to, say, 30 years in prison for some “bloody crime,” but about prisoners sentenced to one or two years in prison for minor offenses. And of course, prisoners themselves must strive to reintegrate into society.

About 600 prisoners, men and women, left their prisons for four days and changed into sports uniforms. First, the penitentiary institutions held qualifying competitions in athletics, boxing, gymnastics, table tennis, badminton, basketball, football and fencing. In those sports that involve team competition (football, basketball, etc.), prisoners and prison staff could compete together. This is one way to improve the relationship between those who must serve their sentences and those who are obliged to protect them.

During all the games, not a single incident was recorded. No escape attempts, no “showdowns” between prisoners or prisoners and staff. Meals for the participants were provided at the tourist center, next to the place where the competition was held. Moreover, all participants - both prisoners and prison staff - sat at the same tables and ate the same food. Dozens of volunteers from the penitentiary administration took part in the competition. The total cost of hosting the first National Penitentiary Olympic Games was 120,000 euros, which, according to Pierre Cambreal, was raised by "numerous partners." A number of stores, for example, made significant discounts for the purchase of necessary materials or provided the necessary funds.

“As in any other competition in which the participants are dressed only in shorts and T-shirts, no one simply knows who is who outside the playing field,” emphasizes Pierre Cambreal. And this, in his opinion, is another way to establish “a different, non-confrontational relationship.” It's also a way to "give those idling in their cells a purpose" by giving them the opportunity to put in some effort and enjoy it. Pierre Cambreal is convinced of this: “Obtaining sports results through their own will, thanks to the lifestyle that we offer them, stimulates these people who will be released in six months or a year, and gives them certain opportunities and hopes.”

In the meantime, after the ceremonial closing of the Olympics, they return to their cells. Many of them will hang the medals they won on the wall.

Almost all European countries at different stages of their development they tried to increase their power and prosperity by conquering and ruling colonies. The greatest successes in conquering and developing new lands were achieved by Spain, Portugal and England. Competing with them: the Netherlands, France and Germany. Even countries such as Denmark and Sweden owned their own colonies.

The reasons that moved people to equip colonial expeditions were: trade, search for gold and other minerals, search for places to live, neutralization of pirate states, building a prestigious image.

The colonial empire of France arose gradually; it would be more correct to distinguish two long historical stages:

• The first colonial empire (XVI-XVIII centuries) was built mainly by large royal trading companies, such as the French trading West India Company. During her conquests, the country acquired a large part of North America, the Caribbean islands and a large part of India, a significant part of which passed to England in 1763.
• Second Colonial Empire ( late XIX c.) was built mainly to challenge the power of the British Empire, and lasted until the sixties of the twentieth century. It included the lands of North Africa, a substantial piece of West and Central Africa, Indochina and a significant number of islands around the world.

At the peak of its conquests, the empire reached a total area of ​​12.3 million square kilometers, 25 times the area of ​​the state itself. In terms of its scale, it was second only to the capabilities of Great Britain, which added 30 million square kilometers of colonized lands.

Colonies of France on the world map

Beginning of expansion

At the initial stage, which originated in the first third of the sixteenth century, there was a military annexation of territories, which was quite obviously beneficial from a political and economic point of view, which is indisputable historical fact, not being a real priority for the country's development.

The early travels of the Italian-born Giovanni da Verrazano, who served in France, led to the discovery of new lands. With him light hand were declared the property of the crown of his place of residence. The discoverer Jacques Cartier made three voyages along North America at the beginning of the 16th century, marking the beginning of its exploration by France.

Fishermen enjoyed visiting the Grand Bank off Newfoundland throughout the century, marking the beginning of the history of colonial expansion in North America. In 1534, the first French colonists settled in Canada. Fishing and the search for precious metals inspired the new arrivals. Spain's zealous defense of “its” American monopoly and internal religious war at the end of the 16th century, did not allow proper consistent efforts to gain a foothold in the region. There were early French attempts to establish colonies in Brazil in 1555, in São Luis in 1612 and in Florida, but these too were thwarted by Portuguese and Spanish vigilance.

First colonial empire of France

The history of the empire began in 1605 with the founding of Port Royal in modern Nova Scotia, Canada. Three years later, traveler Samuel Champlain founded the French settlement of Quebec, which was to become the capital of New France, a region rich in furs. By forming beneficial alliances with various Native American tribes, the French were free to rule most of the North American continent. For the time being, areas of French settlement were limited to the valley of the St. Lawrence River. And before the creation of the Sovereign Council in 1663, the territory of New France had the status of a trading colony. But the right to govern it was transferred to the British under the Utrecht Peace Treaty of 1713.

In the seventeenth century, commercial ambitions lead to conquest in the Caribbean region. The empire was replenished with Martinique, Guadeloupe and Santo Domingo. The introduced system for extracting maximum efficiency from occupied lands in this case was based on the slave trade and slave labor in the cultivation of sugar cane and tobacco plantations. During the same period, colonists settled Senegal, Africa and Reunion in Indian Ocean and establish some dominance in India.

In parallel with the expansion of the empire in North America the conquest of the West Indies was carried out. Settlement of the area along the South American coast, in what is now French Guiana, began in 1624, and the colony of St. Kitts was founded in 1627. Before the peace agreement with the British, the island was divided, and after that it was completely ceded.

The Insular American Company founded colonies in Guadeloupe and Martinique in 1635, and subsequently in Saint-Lucie in 1650. The plantations were developed with the help of slaves brought from Africa. Resistance from indigenous peoples led to bloody ethnic cleansing in 1660.

The French presence abroad was not convincing, and in February 1763 the Treaty of Paris, which marked the end of the Anglo-French War, forced the country to abandon its claims to Canada and its presence in Senegal.

The most profitable expansion of the Caribbean colonies occurred in 1664, with the creation of Saint-Domingue, today's Haiti. The settlement was founded on the western edge of the Spanish island of Hispaniola. By the 18th century, Haiti had become the most profitable sugar plantation in the Caribbean. The eastern half of Hispaniola was administered by the country for a short period, but was ceded to Spain after the Haitian Revolution.

Conquests were not limited to acquisitions in the New World. In 1624, the first trading posts appeared in West Africa in Senegal.

In 1664, a company was created that competed for primacy in trade in the east. Controlled lands appeared in: Chandannagar in 1673, Pondicherry, Yanaon, Mahe, Karaikal. The acquisitions formed the basis of French India. The territory of present-day Reunion in the Indian Ocean, modern Mauritius and the Seychelles in 1756 were also not ignored. Under Napoleon, Egypt was also conquered for a short period, but rule there extended only to the immediate vicinity of the Nile.

In 1699, territorial claims in North America expanded further with the founding of Louisiana in the Mississippi River basin. A wide trade network throughout the region, linked to Canada through the Great Lakes, was supported by a network of defensive fortifications centered in Illinois and what is now Arkansas.

During a series of conflicts between France and England, a significant part of the conquered empire was lost.

Second colonial wave (1830-1870)

The second French colonial epic debuted with an attack on Algeria. Under Napoleon III, bold attacks on Mexico were carried out. Napoleon controlled southern Vietnam, Cambodia and Saigon. The authorities annexed a number of Pacific islands, such as Tahiti and New Caledonia. They tried to establish themselves in Asia.

After the Franco-Prussian War, the country grew into Indochina. Using the newly annexed lands of Vietnam, Tonkin and Annam were captured in 1883, Laos and Kwan Zhou Van. The country became the second most powerful colonial power, after England.

In the mid-19th century, a concession was established in Shanghai, which existed there until 1946, and a protectorate in Tunisia by the end of the century. At the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, with enormous efforts and 16 years of struggle, Mauritania became a colony. The crown was replenished with Senegal, Guinea, Mali, Cote d'Ivoire, Benin, Niger, Chad, Congo and Morocco.

The last successful colonization interventions occurred at the end of the First World War.

Colonial administration

There were two ways to regulate colonies: assimilation or association. On the one hand, with assimilation, the administration in Paris dictates the laws to which the controlled lands must obey, on the other hand, the path of unification is a more flexible system. The path of association leaves the authorities, but residents do not become full citizens of the country. Despite the variety of administrative systems, the French government claims its sovereignty. Dominance is reflected at the economic level. The indigenous population is characterized by a lack of voting rights, special taxation and a lack of basic freedoms. Among other things, the European colonial structure conflicts with local culture and customs. The educational system used in the controlled territories is effective remedy implantation of the European way of thinking.

Colonial Exhibition in Paris 1931

The international exposition, which opened on May 6, 1931 in Paris, can be considered a symbol of the country’s prestige and glory in the field of conquering the world. The laying of the first stone took place on November 5, 1928; construction took place over more than two years on an area of ​​110 hectares located around Lake Daumesnil in the east of the capital in the green forest of Vincennes. The main entrance was decorated with a golden gate, which is still preserved. The Colonial Exhibition represented all the colonies and countries under the French protectorate. For each corner of the world conquered by the country, a special pavilion was provided. Catholic and Protestant churches were represented by mission flags. About 200 buildings were occupied by large companies, restaurants and snack bars, and exotic food stores. The exhibition was complemented by a colonial museum, a tropical aquarium and a zoo. The area was decorated with majestic illuminated fountains. To move around the park, a Railway, a length of five and a half kilometers, along which six stations were built. It was also possible to travel by electric vehicles. For the entertainment of visitors, 16 boats, many rowing boats and 30 boats for water attractions on the lake were purchased. The park hosted various festivals and exhibitions, among which the “Day of Colonial Tourism” occupied a special place.

The exhibition was a huge success: more than 8 million visitors, some of whom came again. The Colonial Museum taught visitors about the various stages of colonial conquest. 5 months after the opening, funding began to be cut, so the zoo, the museum of the colonies and the pagoda have survived and are popular to this day.

French colonies today

Colonization was a fairly unpopular measure, and was largely considered a waste of money and military effort. At the beginning of the twentieth century, right-wing parties opposed decolonization because they considered it too costly, and the left wing did not support its position, seeing peace, freedom and civilization in abandoning this policy. At the end of the colonial empire, the left wing advocated decolonization, while the right resisted until the civil war of 1960-1961.

Coming to power in 1936 " Popular Front» lobbies for reforms designed to increase the independence of the colonies. The economic crisis of the 1930s and the Second World War led to the end of the era of conquest.

During the Brazzaville Conference in January 1944, countries worked together to develop an administrative system that would provide greater opportunities for self-determination for indigenous peoples. The first victory that marks the failure of colonial France is the declaration of independence of Lebanon and Syria in 1941, which came into force in 1943.

Having failed to organize a process of painless decolonization in the middle of the last century, France experienced difficult situation, especially in Algeria, where the war of independence lasted from 1954 to 1962 and practically ended civil war in France. Colonial France begins to collapse and the National Liberation Front is born, which sparks an armed uprising in Algeria. The war in Algeria was responsible for the birth of the Fifth Republic. The agreement in 1962 marked the end of the war and Algerian independence.

By the beginning of 1960, almost all former French colonies had become independent countries. Several territories remain part of France. Residents of former colonies, especially Algeria, demanded the privileged right to become citizens of the country.

Decolonization is happening in other countries as well. Tunisia became independent in 1956, African countries between 1960 and 1963. Gradually, other foreign territories also changed their status.

Belonging to the former empire became a matter of geopolitics and national pride. The older generation lives with the thought that they were lucky to live in a country that was the second largest empire and brought civilization and democracy to the peoples of nine percent of the world's surface. Decolonization, organized under the leadership of Charles de Gaulle, was approved by the majority, despite the trauma caused by the Algerian War.

Most people who obtain French citizenship today come from former colonies.

January 19th, 2017 , 04:44 pm

A football fan from Russia who served time in France talks about drugs, the British and Dostoevsky

Football fans Alexei Erunov and Sergei Gorbachev returned to Russia after serving time in a Marseille prison on charges of organizing mass riots at Euro 2016 in France. They spent seven months in prison. Gorbachev, one of the participants in the Tula Arsenal fan movement, told his version of what happened in Marseille, spoke about the peculiarities of being in a Marseille prison, relations with prisoners and support from his homeland.

- There are legends in Russia about the comfort of European prisons, but upon arrival you told reporters that you rate the conditions of detention at 2-3 points on a ten-point scale. What didn't you like?

The Boumette prison, where we served our sentences, is considered one of the worst correctional institutions in Europe. In terms of conditions of detention, it is inferior even to Turkish prisons. Bumetta is very dirty; it has been in operation since pre-war times. Communications and housing stock are in critical condition. When we were there, the stairs in two blocks fell into disrepair; they almost collapsed. Besides, serious problems with plumbing, in terms of service life it has long outlived its usefulness. People came to us to clean it several times a week. This was achieved from the administration only under the threat of complaints to the embassy. The prison staff generally do their job carelessly.

Very poor quality and medical care. I'll give it a rating of 1 on a scale of ten. I had certain health problems, but I never received a referral for treatment. Certain progress began only after another letter from the embassy, ​​but at that moment there was a week left before liberation.

- What is ethnic composition prisoners?

There were 30 people living on our floor, 90 percent of them Arabs and blacks. These people, to put it mildly, are not very developed - almost no one can read. They are imprisoned mainly for drug trafficking. We were very surprised when we saw that hashish was smoked at Bumetta like cigarettes. There are no restrictions on this within the prison grounds. You can go into the gym, and there are 30 people standing there with joints.

The management does not stop this for two reasons: firstly, weed calms down the prisoners, they create fewer problems. Secondly, soft drugs may soon be legalized in France. The authorities no longer know how to deal with this, so the option of receiving taxes to the treasury from the sale of grass is being seriously considered.

Hashish in a French prison is a freely convertible currency. During searches in one of my cells, they found 30 thousand euros, several kilograms of drugs and several iPhones. Some go to prison specifically to make money. This is a whole family business. For example, a father was sitting in our block, his son was sitting in the next block, and his daughter was sitting in another block. The head of the family and his successors were highly respected.

- You said that there were only Russians in the cell, but you probably had to intersect with other prisoners. Have there been any conflicts?

Everyone knew what we were up to, so we were afraid and didn’t take any extra steps. But unprincipled youth periodically tried to provoke us. We tried not to react. Once there was a serious conflict with one of the prisoners, but in the end everything was resolved peacefully. As a result, the French themselves highly appreciated our Slavic wisdom, so we did not lose face. The Russians are the first in the world, everyone is afraid of us. No one will dare to say anything to your face or openly do something nasty. All attempts to shake the situation were made on the sly, but failed. Our exit from prison was like a scene from the movie “Problem Child”: all the prisoners and staff were very happy that the Russians had finally left.

- During your time in prison, you lost six kilograms. Was the food quality bad too?

No, in a French prison the food is much better than in a Russian one. “Rations” were distributed twice a day, at 12 o'clock - lunch, at 18 - dinner. There were very tasty things, for example, a grilled cutlet with potatoes, and sometimes they served green beans with some kind of seaweed. There was no need to do it once in a while. At the same time, there was a store in the prison, but the shopping procedure was very complicated and took a lot of time.

They slipped forms under the door, you marked the products you needed there, two weeks later something arrived, but with wild interruptions and confusion. I am a manager myself and can assess what is happening in prison from an organizational point of view: the lists were compiled manually, there was no automation, so people made a lot of mistakes. Despite this, amounts for purchases were debited from the card account, which were then not returned. I will never forget how one day they sent us 30 pita breads intended for someone unknown.

- Did you know French before going to prison? Was it possible to pull him up there?

No, I didn’t know and didn’t want to know. I'm not sure I'll ever need it. In prison, I developed a good relationship with my French teacher, so I studied with pleasure. I hope we can continue to communicate once we are free.

- Upon arrival in Moscow, you noted that as soon as the two-year ban on visiting France is lifted, you will definitely return there, since there are unfinished business there. What did you mean?

I don’t want to answer this question, time will tell. Maybe it was a joke, maybe not. Let there remain a small mystery.

- Why do you think there were riots in Marseille?

The city was in chaos. Level of organization of the event from the outside law enforcement I would rate it three on a ten-point scale. There were no divisions of fan flows, no sorting. In general, no measures were taken to prevent unrest. The British could freely buy tickets to sectors where mainly Russians were located. In the city, the French police were inactive.

I regularly attend major international football tournaments. For me, any Euro or World Cup is a holiday. In addition, such competitions are interesting for me from the point of view of organization; you often find something to learn. In France, I wanted to start helping the organizers myself.

- How did the English fans behave?

On the day of the match in the Old Port of Marseille, about 500 England fans, in a state of extreme intoxication (many of them were sick and unable to stand), sang songs throughout the day. Each of them ended with a massive volley of stones and bottles towards the police.

Law enforcement officers simply observed this and did not take any action. I also decided to see what was happening in the bars. The Russian wild soul, in comparison with them, nervously smokes on the sidelines. I saw wild drunkenness, breaking glass, flying chairs, fights. And this is all between themselves, without the participation of the Russians.

I deliberately went to places where the British gathered. When traveling to international matches, I constantly communicate with fans from different countries, this is my hobby. I’m very interested in how many there are, where they came from, what they intend to do, what banners they brought, what chants they have.

- Western media claimed that the Russians who took part in the riots underwent special training, acted very clearly and deliberately attacked the British. What do you say to this?

Nonsense. In general, I went to the Old Port with a friend, my intentions were absolutely peaceful. We rode the Ferris wheel and took a walk. At the same time, at every step we were met with provocations and shouts in our direction.

One case was completely outrageous and happened before my eyes. A friend from Volgograd came to Marseille with his wife, on the street a dead drunk Englishman approached her and began to openly pester her and grope her.

So what were we supposed to do?

Gently take his hand away and politely ask him to leave? Or call the police, who always stood aside, like real estate, like monuments? The cause of the clashes was the behavior of the British and the low level of organization of the tournament. Conflicts and scandals occurred spontaneously, and were presented in the media as a planned action of bloodthirsty Russians.

Why did you end up getting a prison sentence?

I just found myself in the company of Russian fans. We were attacked, stones and bottles were thrown at us, and we had to defend ourselves. At each trial, I was accused of more and more new episodes, the articles were changed, which is why the prison term increased. We filed appeals, and I could have been acquitted. However, the French followed the principle; they will never raise their hands and apologize. This is a proud country that does not admit mistakes.

Many people ask me: “Why did you even go there?” What should I do - sit in complete isolation in the apartment or get drunk in some bar? I have different values. I came to watch football: to communicate with fans from other countries, to walk around the city, to get to know the locals better. I want to do all this as a human being, especially in anticipation of the 2018 World Cup at home. So that foreigners tell only good things about us and strive to come to the World Cup. And they didn’t spread negativity about the Russians, as I did with the British.

- Did the Russian embassy and the leadership of the Tula Arsenal support you during your imprisonment?

At first, not everything worked out in our relationship with Russian embassy. But over time, we found a common language through joint efforts. At the end of our term, the embassy was working at full capacity, for which we thank them very much.

Not everything was going smoothly with the management of Arsenal Tula either. Many thanks to the former general director of the club Andrei Pavlovich Nikitin. As soon as he found out that I was in prison, he himself took the initiative and top level organized both moral and material assistance. In fact, he and I were just acquaintances, but after such an act, my respect for him increased even more.

The authorities of Tula also helped. Upon returning to the city, many fellow countrymen generally declared me national hero. Well, what kind of hero am I? I just spent time in prison. However, they believe that there was no prison, and I attended the holiday, which dragged on a little. In conclusion, I became acquainted with many works of authors who wrote about life in prison. The last thing I read was “Notes from a Dead House” by Dostoevsky. He writes that Russia is a very strange country; our prisoners are not considered criminals, they are rather poor fellows whom everyone wants to help. Since then, little has changed, I was able to feel it myself.

- You are the director of a construction company. Did the long absence hinder the company's business?

Not at all. Many customers with whom I cooperate have frozen work and stated that they will wait for my return and do not want to do business with anyone else.

- Was it difficult for you to decide to stay in prison with Alexei Erunov, because you could have returned a month earlier?

Everything was not quite as the media portrayed it. I had a desire to help, because Russians do not abandon their own in trouble, but the final decision was made in court, the last word remained with them. The authorities did not want to leave one Russian in prison; they were afraid of problems. They always tried to isolate us from other prisoners so that there would be no conflicts. The administration could not imagine that by the end of the term, Arabs and blacks would come up to us in the gym and ask for advice on how to exercise properly. They borrowed the program and technique of doing the exercises from us. Now I have left prison, but I still have followers there.

- Do you plan to continue attending away matches of the Russian national team? After the Marseilles story, the desire has not disappeared?

It even increased. I gained invaluable experience. If you asked me if I would like to change everything if given the opportunity, my answer would be negative. Now I have a diploma in French. We played sports at least five times a week. I studied France through the prisoners of the prison and gained enormous life experience.

The only negative point in this whole story is the serious experiences of the mother. We never met in seven months, but sometimes we talked on the phone. I tried my best to calm her down. Journalists witnessed our meeting at the airport with tears in their eyes.