Basic terms on the topic “Kievan Rus”

Corvee - a duty that consisted of the obligation of a peasant who had his own allotment to work on the master's field for a certain number of days a week.

beekeeping - initially extracting honey from wild bees from natural hollows, then breeding bees in hollowed out hollows.

Boyar Duma - the highest council of the nobility under the Grand Duke (during the times of Kievan Rus and the period of fragmentation), and from the 16th century. under the king. The Boyar Duma was a permanent legislative body and took part in resolving issues of internal and foreign policy states.

Boyars - in Kievan and Vladimir-Suzdal Rus', the senior princely warriors, in Novgorod and Pskov - the top of the urban population, descendants of the ancient tribal nobility. The highest, along with the great and appanage princes, layer of society in Russia from X toXVIIIcenturies

Varangians - warrior-combatants from the Scandinavian peoples, who in Europe were called Vikings and Normans. The Varangians are mentioned in the Tale of Bygone Years. In the 9th-11th centuries, many Varangian warriors-combatants served with the Russian princes and acted as mercenaries. Scandinavian merchants who were engaged in trade on the way “from the Varangians to the Greeks” were also called Varangians in Rus'. In the XI-XIII centuries. Varangian warriors and merchants in Rus' became glorified without having a noticeable impact on Russian history and culture.

Rope - one of the names of the community among the Eastern and Southern Slavs. In Rus', it initially developed on a consanguineous basis and gradually turned into a neighboring (territorial) community, bound by mutual responsibility. In Russian Pravda, the rope was responsible to the prince for a murder committed on its territory, and supported (fed) the prince’s fine collectors.

Veche - a people's meeting in ancient and medieval Rus' to discuss common affairs. It arose from tribal gatherings of the Slavs. The veche was in charge of issues of war and peace.

Vira – a large fine awarded according to the laws of “Russian Truth” for the murder of a free person.

Virnik - fine collector.

Magus - pagan priest, sorcerer.

Patrimony - in Russia, the hereditary land ownership of a feudal lord. The first estates were princely; they appeared in the 10th century. By the XI-XII centuries. the documents already mention boyar and monastic estates. The main value in a patrimonial economy was not so much the land as the dependent peasants living on it. The peasants could not own the land, so they took it for use from their feudal lord. For this they worked corvée and paid quitrent.

Guests - A category of merchants who came to trade from other countries, later - local merchants who traded in other cities or abroad.

Hryvnia – the main monetary unit in Kievan Rus.

Tithe - tax in favor of the church.

Druzhina - originally a detachment of warriors that formed around a military leader at the stage of transition from the clan system to the state. The squad was supposed to protect the leader, and he, in turn, provided the squad with everything necessary. The main source of wealth for the warriors was wars and the booty captured during them. Gradually, the squad turns into the top of the tribe, concentrating wealth and power in its hands. In Rus', the squad appeared in the 9th century. It was headed by a prince. In those days, the squad consisted of two parts: the so-called “senior” squad (the prince’s closest advisers and assistants) and the “junior” squad, which included newly recruited warriors.

Purchase – category of dependent population of the Old Russian state. A free man took a loan from the feudal lord, a “buy” (of livestock, money, tools, etc.) and was obliged to work it off. The runaway purchase was made whitewashed, that is, a complete slave. Having returned the loan, the purchase was freed from dependence.

Cyrillic – Slavic alphabet, created on the basis of the Byzantine unitiate (statutory alphabet), supposedly, by a student of the Slavic enlightener Methodius Clementius. It was named “Cyrillic” as a sign of the people’s deep recognition of the activities of the first Slavic enlighteners Cyril and Methodius.

Prince - head of state or fief in the 9th-16th centuries. among the Slavs and other peoples, later - noble title. Before the formation of the state, the princes were tribal leaders, who then gradually became heads of state. At first, the power of the prince was elective, then it became hereditary. For example, the Rurik dynasty in the Old Russian state.

Baptism - the introduction of Christianity as a state religion in Kievan Rus, carried out at the end of the 10th century (988) by Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich.

Ladder system - a system of transferring grand-ducal power according to seniority in the family.

Chronicle – records of events in Russian history, arranged by year.

Metropolitan – head of the Russian Orthodox Church before the establishment of the patriarchate in 1589

Mytnik - collector of trade duties in Rus'

Viceroy - in Rus' X-XVI centuries. executive, who headed the local administration. Appointed by the prince.

Norman theory - a direction in Russian and foreign historiography, whose supporters considered the Normans (Varangians) to be the founders of the state in Ancient Rus'. Formulated in the second quarter of the 18th century. G. Z. Bayer, G. F. Miller and others. The Norman theory was rejected by M. V. Lomonosov, D. I. Ilovaisky, S. A. Gedeonov and others.

Natural quitrent - a duty that consisted in the obligation of the peasant to contribute to the benefit of the owner of the land a certain amount of products produced on his own farm.

Cash quitrent - a duty consisting in the obligation of the peasant to pay the owner of the land a certain amount in money.

Ognishchanin - chief servant, manager of the estate's economy.

Carriage - a system of collecting tribute, which was introduced by Princess Olga, instead of polyudye, establishing its fixed size (lessons) and collection place (cemeteries).

Pogost - according to the tax reform of Princess Olga, the place where tribute was collected, where the population brought it and where the court of the princely official (tiun) was located, who monitored the timely and correct receipt of taxes into the treasury.

Polyudye - in Kievan Rus, a detour by the prince and a squad of subject lands to collect tribute.

Posad - the name of the trade and craft part of the city in Rus'.

The path “from the Varangians to the Greeks” - a water (sea and river) route from Scandinavia through Eastern Europe to Byzantium in the Middle Ages. One of the waterways of the expansion of the Varangians from their area of ​​residence (the coast of the Baltic Sea) to the South - to Southeast Europe and Asia Minor in the 8th-13th centuries AD. e. Russian merchants used this same route to trade with Constantinople and Scandinavia.

Early feudal state - historians use this term to characterize the Old Russian state of the 9th-10th centuries. During this period, the territory of the state had not yet been completely formed, and there was no established system of governance. The tribal isolation of the territories that were part of the state was preserved.

Tribal community - one of the first forms public organization of people. In the early stages of its history, an individual person was unable to resist nature and obtain the minimum necessary for life. This led to the unification of people into communities. The clan community is characterized by collective labor and egalitarian consumption. Within the community there was only a sex-age division of labor.

Russian truth - the first collection of laws of Ancient Rus' that has come down to us.

Ryadovich – category of dependent population of the Old Russian state. They entered into an agreement (series) with the feudal lord, which placed them in a certain dependence on the feudal lord.

Smerd - in Ancient Rus', a category of people without full rights. The life of a smerda in “Russkaya Pravda” was protected by a minimum fee of 5 hryvnia. Perhaps this was the name given to the inhabitants of the newly annexed territories, subject to increased tribute. There is an opinion that all farmers, among whom were both dependent and free, were called smerda.

Neighborhood Community - a group, a collective of people who are not related by family ties. Community members live on certain territory and enter the community according to the principle of neighborhood. Each family within the community has the right to a share of community property and cultivates its own part of the arable land. Together, community members raise virgin soil, clear forests, and build roads. Among the Eastern Slavs, the transition from a tribal community to a neighboring one was completed by the 7th century. After this, the male population of the community received the name “people.” With the growth of feudal land ownership (during the existence of the Old Russian state), the community became dependent on the feudal lord or state. However, it retained all its functions. The community regulated the cycle of agricultural work, distributed taxes among the community members (the principle mutual responsibility), solved current economic issues.

Tiun - servant-manager in the estate of the patrimonial estate; The princely tiuns also carried out various state assignments.

Destiny - part of the principality-land, a semi-independent possession allocated to one of the younger members of the ruling dynasty.

Lesson – according to the tax reform of Princess Olga, a fixed amount of tribute levied on the subject population.

Serf - category of dependent population in Russia in the 10th-18th centuries. The most powerless part of the population, in its legal status close to slaves. The feudal lord could kill, sell, punish the slave, and was also responsible for the actions of his slave. They became slaves as a result of being captured, sold for debts, or married to a slave. As a rule, serfs did not have their own allotment and were among the servants.

Servants - in the broadest sense of the word servant. In Ancient Rus', the category of dependent people, slaves.

Paganism – religious beliefs based on primitive myths about many gods, spirits, personifying the forces of nature (sun, rain, fertility), human activities (agriculture, trade, war).

Old Russian state(Old Russian, Old Slav. Rѹ́s, Russian lands, Greek Ῥωσία, lat. Russia, Ruthenia, Russia, Ruzzia, other Scand. Garðar,Garðaríki) - a medieval state in Eastern Europe, which arose in the 9th century as a result of the unification of the East Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes under the rule of the princes of the Rurik dynasty. At its peak, the Old Russian state occupied the territory from the Taman Peninsula in the south, the Dniester and the headwaters of the Vistula in the west to the headwaters of the Northern Dvina in the north. By the middle of the 12th century, it entered into a state of feudal fragmentation and actually broke up into one and a half dozen separate Russian republics and principalities, ruled by different branches of the Rurikovichs. Until the Mongol invasion (1237-1240), Kyiv formally continued to be considered the main table of Rus', and the Principality of Kiev remained in the collective possession of Russian princes.

· 1 Title

o 1.1 The term “Kievan Rus”

· 2 History

o 2.1 The emergence of the Old Russian state in the international arena

o 2.2 The problem of the emergence of statehood

o 2.3 The reign of Oleg the Prophet

o 2.4 Igor Rurikovich

o 2.5 Olga

o 2.6 Svyatoslav Igorevich

o 2.7 Vladimir and Yaroslav the Wise. Baptism of Rus'

o 2.8 Changes in public administration at the end of the 10th - beginning of the 12th centuries.

o 2.9 Decay

· 3 The nature of statehood of Russian lands

· 4 Cities and fortresses

o 4.1 Cities

o 4.2 Fortresses and fortifications

· 5 Military organization

· 6 Economics

o 6.1 Monetary system

o 6.2 Agriculture

o 6.3 Crafts

o 6.4 Trade

o 6.5 Taxes (tribute)

· 7 Culture of Ancient Rus'

o 7.1 Writing and education

o 7.2 Literature

o 7.3 Architecture

o 7.4 Painting

o 7.5 Folklore

· 8 Old Russian law

· 9 See also

· 10 Notes

Name

Map of the settlement of the Slavs and their neighbors at the end of the 8th century.

The definition of “Old Russian” is not associated with the generally accepted historiographic division of antiquity and the Middle Ages in Europe in the middle of the 1st millennium AD. In relation to Rus', it is usually used to designate the so-called pre-Mongol period of the 9th - mid-13th centuries, in order to distinguish this era from the following periods Russian history.

The term "Kievan Rus"

The term “Kievan Rus” arose in the first half of the 19th century, having gone through a significant evolution during the history of its use. Initially, contemporaries (S. M. Solovyov, N. I. Kostomarov and V. O. Klyuchevsky) used it in a narrow geographical sense to designate the Principality of Kiev, using along with it such terms as Rus Chernigov, Rus Rostov-Suzdal and others. Since the beginning of the 20th century, the term has acquired a new, chronological meaning - as the initial, pre-Mongol stage of Russian history. In this meaning, the term became popular primarily among Marxist historians. At the same time, in Ukrainian nationalist historiography, the qualifying term “Kievan Rus” was not particularly popular, since it implied the existence of other forms or manifestations of Rus (whether in a geographical or chronological sense). Mikhail Grushevsky, for example, did not use it, preferring the terms “Kievan State” or “Russian Power” (“ Russian state”, contrasted in his version with the Moscow state).

The establishment of the concept of “Kievan Rus” in the state-political sense as the official name of a single East Slavic state with its capital in Kyiv occurred only in the Soviet era. In this meaning, the term was first used in history textbooks written after 1934 along with the “Short Course on the History of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks).” The textbooks were written at the direction of Stalin and were personally edited by him. At the same time, Academician B.D. Grekov, who was responsible for preparing sections until the 17th century, published his main works: “Kievan Rus” (1939) and “Culture of Kievan Rus” (1944), which received the Stalin Prize. Previously, Grekov, like Grushevsky, a member of the USSR Academy of Sciences, used the concept of “Kiev State”. Introducing a new designation into use, Grekov considered it necessary to clarify:

“I consider it necessary to point out once again that in my work I am dealing with Kievan Rus not in the narrow territorial sense of this term (Ukraine), but precisely in the broad sense of the “Rurikovich Empire”, corresponding to the Western European empire of Charlemagne, which includes a huge territory , on which several independent state units were subsequently formed."

Currently, the term “Kievan Rus” is considered obsolete for a number of reasons and is gradually falling out of use in the scientific community.

In ancient times, the concept of “Kievan Rus” was never used

Filaret Denisenko, hiding behind the brand “Patriarch of Kiev and All Ukraine-Rus,” recently said regarding the upcoming celebration of the 1025th anniversary of the Baptism of Rus': “This holiday is ours, Ukrainian. And you need to realize this, because we're talking about about the baptism of Kievan Rus, not Moscow. There was no Moscow at that time, and therefore it was too early for them to celebrate.”

In other words, by Kievan Rus, Filaret understands a certain state with its capital in Kyiv, which adopted Christianity more than a thousand years ago and which in no case should be confused with a completely different, later state - Muscovite Rus.

You don’t need to be an outstanding historian to know: Moscow in the 10th century. really hasn't happened yet. As, however, there was no Ukraine. However, Rus' already existed. Filaret corrects: not Rus', but Kievan Rus! That's what the state was called! These features of the “patriarch’s” vocabulary are worth dwelling on.

In this regard, let us take a short historical excursion. Firstly, in ancient times the concept of “Kievan Rus” was never used. The name of the country and people was simply the word “Rus”. As an ethnic self-name, it was already used in the treaties of Oleg and Igor with the Greeks in 912 and 945. The Byzantines even then called Rus' “Russia”. In the “Sermon on Law and Grace” (mid-11th century) the “Russian language (that is, people)” and “Russian land” are mentioned, in the “Tale of Bygone Years” - “Russian people” (1015), “Russian people "(1103), in "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" - "Russian land", in "Zadonshchina" - "Russian people". Already from the 11th century. The form “Russian” (with two “s”) is also fixed.

At the same time, initially all of Russia was called state territory(in the “Sermon on Law and Grace”, Laurentian Chronicle - from 1015, Ipatiev Chronicle - from 1125). Only after the collapse of the unified statehood did the name “Rus” in the narrow sense this word is assigned to the Middle Dnieper region and the Kiev region (in the Ipatiev Chronicle - from 1140, in the Laurentian Chronicle - from 1152). The word “Rus” (along with the word “Russia”) has been used in historical science since its inception to designate the vast space in which Russian statehood was formed and developed in the 9th-14th centuries.

What about “Kievan Rus”? Initially, this concept arose in historical science mid-19th V. in a narrow geographical sense: to designate a small region near the Dnieper - the Kyiv region. This is exactly how the historian S.M. began to use it. Soloviev (1820-1879), author of the famous 29-volume “History of Russia since Ancient Times” (published since 1851). He, in particular, distinguished between “Kievan Rus'”, “Chernigov Rus'” and “Rostov or Suzdal Russia”. The same understanding is found in N.I. Kostomarov (“Russian history in the biographies of its main figures”, 1872), V.O. Klyuchevsky (“Complete course of Russian history”, published since 1904) and other historians of the second half of the 19th century- beginning of the 20th century

Since the beginning of the twentieth century. Another meaning appeared - chronological: Kievan Rus began to be understood as the first (Kievan) period of Russian history (X-XII centuries). Marxist historians N.A. started talking about this. Rozhkov, M.N. Pokrovsky, as well as V.N. Storozhev, M.D. Priselkov and others. If, within the framework of the first understanding, Kievan Rus was a geographical part of Rus', then under the second, it was the initial stage of Russian history. Both versions were based on the idea of ​​​​the inseparability of the history of Rus'.

However, still in late XIX V. an opposite theory took shape, according to which the historical destinies of Southern and Northern Rus' were very weakly connected, and Southern Rus' was proclaimed the historical predecessor of Ukraine alone. This theory, in particular, was intensively cultivated by M.S. Grushevsky (1866-1934), however, Grushevsky did not use the concept of “Kievan Rus”. He introduced the term “Kiev State” (“Kiev State”), although he also used its synonym “Russian State” (“Russian State”). Ukrainian nationalist historiography did not favor Kievan Rus: in the meanings of that time, it seemed to dissolve within the spatial or historical boundaries of greater Rus-Russia.

Approval of the concept of “Kievan Rus” in the state-political sense - as the official name of the East Slavic state of the 9th-12th centuries. with the capital in Kyiv - happened only in Soviet times. In this meaning, “Kievan Rus” was first used in Soviet history textbooks written after 1934, together with the “Short Course on the History of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)”. The textbooks were written at the direction of Stalin and were personally edited by him. Academician B.D. Grekov, who was responsible for preparing sections until the 17th century, simultaneously prepared his main works: “Kievan Rus” (1939) and “Culture of Kievan Rus” (1944), which received the Stalin Prize. Grekov, following Grushevsky (since 1929, a member of the USSR Academy of Sciences), used the concept of “Kievan State,” but for the first time identified it with Kievan Rus. Since then, the concept of “Kievan Rus” began to be used precisely in this Stalinist meaning.

Grekov wrote: “I consider it necessary to point out once again that in my work I am dealing with Kievan Rus not in the narrow territorial sense of this term (Ukraine), but precisely in the broad sense of the “Rurikovich empire”, corresponding to the Western European empire of Charlemagne, which includes itself a huge territory, on which several independent state units were subsequently formed. It cannot be said that the process of feudalization in the studied period of time throughout the vast expanse of the territory of the Kiev state proceeded at a completely parallel pace: along the great waterway “from the Varangians to the Greeks” it undoubtedly developed more intensively and was ahead of the central interfluve (Volga and Oka, - F.G.). A general study of this process is only in major centers this part of Europe occupied by the Eastern Slavs seems to me in some respects acceptable, but even then with constant consideration of the differences in the natural, ethnic and historical conditions of each of the large parts of this association.”

So, Grekov directly denied the main pre-revolutionary use of the term “Kievan Rus” (“narrow-territorial”), and also noted that the territories of the vast Kievan state, where Moscow is now located, were poorly developed, and later generally began their independent development- like France and Germany after the collapse of the Carolingian Empire. This is exactly the scheme that is now being voiced by the “patriarch of all Ukraine-Rus.” Did he really read the works of Grekov? Extremely doubtful. But the secret of such coincidences is revealed simply.

Little Misha Denisenko went to school in Donetsk in 1936. There, in the third grade, he received a brand new textbook, “A Short Course in the History of the USSR,” 1937, developed with the active participation of Grekov. It read: “Since the beginning of the 10th century, the Kievan Principality of the Slavs has been called Kievan Rus” (p. 13). Little Misha could well imagine the ancient Russian red-green border pillars from the time of Prince Oleg, on which the official name of the state was written: “Kievan Rus”. As stated in the same textbook, “Russian nation state"appeared only under Ivan III (p. 32). Thus, Misha learned: Kievan Rus has nothing to do with the Russians. Comrade Stalin, the main author of this textbook, was a friend of all schoolchildren, so Mikhail Antonovich firmly remembered “Kievan Rus” for many years.

Let's not be demanding of him. He was just a proper Soviet schoolboy.

early feudal state 9 - beginning 12th century, which developed in the East. Europe at the turn of the 8th-9th centuries. on the basis of the Eastern Slavs. tribes, ancient cult. the center of which was the Middle Dnieper region with Kiev at its head. K.R. covered a huge territory. - from the Taman Peninsula in the south, the Dniester and the upper reaches of the Vistula in the west to the upper reaches of the north. Dvina in the north, being one of the largest states in Europe. K. Marx compared K.R. with the empire of Charlemagne. K.R. was preceded by a period (6-8 centuries) of the formalization of the prerequisites for feudal rule. relations and their maturation in the depths of the military. democracy. The first concept of the history of K.R. was set out by the author of the Tale of Bygone Years, and its latest edition served as the basis for Normanist constructions. In the 16th century The erroneous genealogy of the Kyiv princes from Rurik (“Rurik dynasty”) was strengthened. In the 18th century The Norman theory arose, and M.V. Lomonosov began the fight against it. View of K.R. as a feud. The state was first put forward by N.P. Pavlov-Silvansky. V.O. Klyuchevsky and M.N. Pokrovsky considered K.R. “urban” Russia, and Klyuchevsky attached exaggerated importance to external. trade. In the 20-30s. 20th century there was a discussion on the essence of socio-economic. building K.R. Some historians considered K.R. a slave owner. state B. D. Grekov proved feud. the character of K.R. from the 9th century, connecting its history with the ancient Slavs of the 6th century. In the history of K.R., he distinguished two stages: a) the development of feudalism. basis and transformation of fief. relations into dominant ones, which led to the formation and existence of a strong Ancient Rus. state (2nd half of 9th - mid 11th centuries); b) further development of the feud. relations that prepared the dismemberment of Old Rus. states for appanages (2nd half of the 11th century - approximately 30s of the 12th century). S.V. Yushkov, counting K.R. from the 11th century. feud. state, distinguished in its history the “pre-feudal period” (9-11 centuries), which, in his opinion, is characterized by a mixture of different structures. In our opinion, the era of K.R. can be divided into five stages. Initial stage (800-882) - Russian education. feud. state with its capital in Kyiv. The state has not yet covered everyone in the east. Slavs and limited to ter. tribes of Polans, Rus, Severians, Drevlyans, Dregovichs, Polochans and, possibly, Slovenians. A manifestation of the maturity of the state is K.R.’s campaign against Byzantium (860). 2nd stage (882-911) - seizure of power in Kyiv by Oleg, in all likelihood, the leader of the Varangian squad. 3rd stage (911-1054) - the heyday of the early feudal period. monarchy of the K.R., due to the rise in production. strength, the successful fight against the nomadic Pechenegs, Byzantium and the Varangians and the development of feudal rule. relationships. During this period K. R. united almost all eastern glories. tribes. The 4th stage (1054-1093) is characterized by the first tangible phenomena of the disintegration of CR. At the same time, growth occurs. forces associated with the progressive role of the feud. formations at this time. The boyars, who stood at the head of the patrimonial system, were at that time in most cases a progressive element of the ruling class; the princes, who broke away from the boyars and undermined the K.R. with the struggle for the redistribution of feuds. rents were often reactive. force using military the state apparatus for its own selfish purposes. The 5th stage (1093-1132) is characterized by a new strengthening of the feud. monarchy, because the princes in connection with the onslaught of the Polovtsians in the end. 11th century sought to consolidate their forces. A more or less unified empire is being created again, which after the victory over the Polovtsians ceased to be an urgent necessity. Strengthening the feud. centers, the increased role of the boyars - everything gravitated towards independence. In 1132 the K.R. collapsed, and the feudal period began. fragmentation. Farming. Letters. sources give several. terms for designating a rural settlement: “pogost” (“peace”), “svoboda” (“sloboda”), village, village, “verv” (for the southern region). Study of Old Russian. villages by archaeologists made it possible to identify all types of village settlements, establish their sizes and the nature of the development. During the era of the formation of the KR, arable farming with harnessed soil-cultivating implements gradually (somewhat later in the north) everywhere replaced arable farming with hoeing and primitive methods of soil cultivation. The three-field farming system prevailed. The following were sown: wheat, oats, millet, rye, barley, etc. Chronicles also mention spring and winter bread. The population was also engaged in cattle breeding, raising poultry, hunting, fishing and beekeeping. Village craft was of subordinate importance. The first thing that was released was iron oxide. production based on local bog ore and using the cheese-making method. The basis of societies. system was a feud. ownership of land, with the gradually increasing enslavement of free community members. The first clashes between the exploited masses and the feudal lords occurred in the 10th century. (945). The result of the enslavement of the village was its inclusion in the feudal system. x-va, based on labor and food rent. Along with this, the remnants of slavery (servitude) remain. In the 6th-7th centuries. in the forest belt, places of settlement of a clan or small family (fortified settlements) disappear and are replaced by unfortified village settlements, on the one hand, and large fortified settlements. the courts of feudal lords - on the other. A patrimonial estate is taking shape. The center of the patrimony is the “prince’s yard”, in which the prince sometimes lives, where, in addition to his mansion, there are houses of his servants - boyars, secondary servants, homes of smerds, ryadovichi, serfs, etc. The patrimony is ruled by the boyar - fireman, the disposing prince. tiunami. Representatives of the patrimonial administration have both economic and political functions. In the patrimonial economy there was a patrimonial craft. With the complication of the patrimonial system, the estate isolation of unfree artisans begins to disappear, a connection with the market and competition from the mountains arises. craft. The development of crafts and trade led to the emergence of cities in the Republic of Kazakhstan (see City in Russia). Kyiv, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Smolensk, Rostov, Ladoga, Pskov, Polotsk and others are mentioned earlier than others. The vital center of the city was the trade market, where crafts were sold. products. There were various types of crafts in the city: blast furnace, blacksmithing, gunsmithing, processing of non-ferrous metals (forging and embossing, embossing and stamping of silver and gold, filigree, granulation), pottery, leatherworking, tailoring, weaving, glass production , enamels, bookmaking, also processing of wood, bone and horn, stone, construction, etc. In the 2nd half. 10th century Masters' marks appear, and wire is produced using the drawing method. Under the influence of Byzantium, complex production of enamels appeared (late 10th century). IN major cities there were special bargains. farmsteads for regular visiting “guests”. The history of K.R. trade falls into two periods. In the 1st period (9th - mid-11th centuries), the role of the Arabs increased, ties with Byzantium and Khazaria strengthened. In addition to transit goods (silk, oriental products), K.R. exported various types of furs (beaver, sable, etc.), slaves, wax, honey, flax, linen, and silver products. Expensive fabrics (Byzantine pavoloks, brocade, oriental silks), silver in dirhams, tin, lead, copper, spices, incense, and medicines were imported. plants, dyes, Byzantine. church utensil. In the 2nd period (mid 11th-12th centuries), the international the situation (the collapse of the Arab Caliphate, the attack of the Cumans on the southern Russian lands, the 1st Crusade of 1096-99, etc.) disrupted the bargaining. way, depriving many states of communication with Russia. Foreign penetration merchants in the Black Sea, competition between the Genoese and Venetians paralyzed the Russians. trade in the south, and by the end of the 12th century. it was mainly transferred to the north - to Novgorod, Smolensk and Polotsk. Bargain. way to Iran and Arab. The Caliphate passed along the Volga, through Itil and further along the Caspian Sea. The path to Byzantium and Scandinavia (the path “from the Varangians to the Greeks”), in addition to Ch. directions (Dnieper - Lovat), had a branch through the West. Dvina. There were two directions to the west: from Kyiv to the Center. Europe (Moravia, Czech Republic, Poland, Southern Germany) and from Novgorod and Polotsk via the Baltic Sea to Scandinavia and Southern Germany. Baltic states. Socio-political build and class struggle. Basic state form control of K.R. was an early feudal monarchy. Power belonged to the prince of Kyiv, who was surrounded by a squad that depended on him and fed mainly from his campaigns. Along with the squad, the activities of the prince in the initial periods of K.R.’s existence were directed by the tribal nobility, who (“city elders”) were invited in certain cases for advice. The veche, a relic of the tribal organization, played a certain role at this time. The government of the country was carried out with the help of thousand and sotskys, that is, on the basis of the military. organizations. The prince's income was various sources. At 10 - start. 11th centuries This is basically “polyudye”, tribute - “lessons” received annually from the cities. At 11 - start. 12th centuries, with the beginning of the early feudal decomposition. monarchy, the situation has changed significantly. Due to the emergence of large land ownership with various types feud. The prince's rent functions became much more complicated. Owning his own large domain, the prince was forced to manage a complex economy in it, like ordinary feudal lords to appoint posadniks, volostels, tiuns, etc., to lead the entire multitude. administration. As before, he was a military man. the head of the state, but now it was necessary to organize not so much a squad as a fief. militia brought by vassals, hire foreign troops, resort to emergency mobilizations. Measures to strengthen and protect the external environment have become more complicated. borders. The law has also developed. function of the prince. The prince became a major fief. monarch. The activities of the prince, generally unlimited, were nevertheless controlled and directed by the top of the feudal class - the boyars who surrounded the prince. The role of the veche at this time decreased even more. It was entirely in the hands of the boyars. The princely court became an administrative-bureaucratic one. the center where all the threads of governing the country converged. A whole hierarchy of administrators has appeared. organs, which began to be divided into a center. and locals. Palace officials arose who were in charge of the department. branches of the princes. management. At the head of the cities was the mountain. patriciate, formed in the 11th century. from large local landowners - “elders” and warriors, whose names are closely intertwined with the history of a particular city (for example, the family of Jan Vyshatich, Ratibor, Chudin - with Kiev, Dmitr Zavidich with Novgorod, etc.). The merchants enjoyed great influence in the city. The need to protect goods during transportation determined that merchants were well armed, even among the mountains. militia they occupied first place. The most numerous part of the mountains The population consisted of artisans, both free and dependent. A special place was occupied by the clergy, divided into black (monastic) and white (secular). At the head of the church was the metropolitan, usually appointed by Byzantium, to whom the bishops were subordinate. Monasteries headed by abbots were subordinate to bishops and metropolitans. The white clergy of large churches united in the so-called. cathedrals, and their churches became the centers of the mountains. clergy. The rural population of the K.R. consisted of communal peasants who had not yet fallen under the power of the feudal lord (their number was decreasing), communal peasants who were already enslaved, and people cut off from the community, deprived of the means of production and who were the labor force within the feud . fiefdoms. The growth of a large fief. land ownership, the enslavement of free community members and the growth of their exploitation led to an aggravation of the class. struggle in the 11th-12th centuries. (uprisings in Suzdal in 1024; in Kyiv in 1068-69; on Beloozero c. 1071; in Kyiv in 1113). In most cases, the uprisings were extremely disunited, they were attended by ministers of a dying religion - the Magi, who used disgruntled peasants to fight the new ideology. A particularly strong wave of bunks. performances swept across Rus' in the 60s and 70s. 11th century due to famine and the invasion of the Polovtsians. During these years, the Yaroslavich Truth was created, a number of articles stipulating punishment for the murder of feudal administration employees. fiefdoms. The meaning of class. The struggle at this time did not consist in overthrowing the feudal lords. formations of the region was a progressive phenomenon, and in limiting the exactions of the exploiters (feudal lords, moneylenders, etc.) by the norm, the region directly allowed. producers to reproduce their products. The exploited also fought for land, personal freedom, etc. Fight against nomads. Throughout the entire period of its existence, K.R. was forced to fight the Asians. nomadic hordes that alternately filled the Black Sea steppes: Khazars, Ugrians, Pechenegs, Torks and Cumans. Pecheneg nomads by the end of the 9th century. occupied southern Russia. steppes from Sarkel on the Don to the Danube. In the 10th century they represented such a large force that the Russians. the princes, like Byzantium, tried to use the alliance with them for their own purposes. The activity of the Pechenegs forced Vladimir Svyatoslavich to strengthen the south. borders K.R. ("to set cities"). Yaroslav the Wise actually destroyed the west in 1036. unification of the Pechenegs. The place of the Pechenegs who left for South Russia. the steppes were occupied by the Torks, Crimea in 1060 by the combined forces of the Russians. the princes were defeated. Later, the remnants of the Torci, settled south of Kyiv, took part in the internecine struggle of the Russians. princes. Starting from the 2nd half. 11th century South Russian The steppes from the Volga to the Danube began to be occupied by the Polovtsians, who took possession of the most important markets. routes between Europe and the countries of the East. The Polovtsians won their first major victory in 1068. The next onslaught of the Polovtsians, when they united under the leadership of Bonyak Sheludivy and Sharukan the Old, K.R. withstood in 1093-96, which required the unification of all Russians. princes. In 1101, Russian-Polovtsian relations improved, but already in 1103 the Cumans violated the peace treaty, and then followed a whole series of campaigns by Vladimir Monomakh to the Polovtsian winter quarters deep in the steppes, which ended only in 1117 with the migration of the Sharukanids to the South to the North. Caucasus and Georgia. Monomakh's son Mstislav pushed the Polovtsians beyond the Don, Volga and Yaik. The political history of K.R. is known thanks to ancient Russian. chronicles compiled in the end. 10th-12th centuries in Kyiv and Novgorod by monks close to the princes. to the top, which is why they mainly report only the history of the princes. According to the initial part of the chronicle, the first prince of K.R. was the legendary Kiy (who founded Kyiv), a famous Armenian. 7th century historian Zenobu Gluck and who lived, in a number of indirect ways. data, in the 6th century. The first dated messages in the chronicle begin in 852. 60s. 9th century are considered in the chronicle together with the history of Western history. and south Slavs Later, a legend about the calling of the Varangians (862), led by the semi-legendary prince, was added to the chronicle. Rurik. According to the same legend, two boyars who were subordinate to Rurik, Askold and Dir, moved to Constantinople along the Dnieper in 862, subjugating Kyiv along the way. After the death of Rurik, power passed to the Varangian king Oleg (d. 912), who, having dealt with Askold and Dir, captured Kiev (882), and in 883-885 subjugated the Drevlyans, northerners, Radimichi and in 907, 911 (the first reliable date Chronicle) made campaigns against Byzantium. Igor continued active external activities. Oleg's policy. In 913, through Itil, he passed all the west. coast of the Caspian Sea, attacked Byzantium twice (941-944). The exorbitant demands for tribute from the Drevlyans served as the reason for their uprising and the murder of Igor (945). His wife Olga was one of the first in Rus' to convert to Christianity. She streamlined local administration (the so-called “camps”) and was forced to establish tribute norms (“lessons”). The son of Igor and Olga, Svyatoslav Igorevich (964-972), provided K.R. with freedom to trade. routes to the East, through the lands of the Volga Bulgarians and Khazars, strengthened the international. position of Rus'. Rus' under Svyatoslav settled on the Black Sea and on the Danube (Tmutarakan, Belgorod, Pereyaslavets on the Danube), but after an unsuccessful war with Byzantium, Svyatoslav was forced to abandon his conquests in the Balkans. Upon returning to Rus', he was killed in battle with the Pechenegs. Svyatoslav was succeeded by his son Yaropolk, who killed his rival, the brother of Oleg of Drevlyan (977). Yaropolk's younger brother Vladimir Svyatoslavich, with the help of the Varangians, moved to Kyiv. Yaropolk was killed, and Vladimir became leader. prince (980-1015). Insist. the need to replace the old ideology of the tribal system with the ideology of emerging feudalism - Christianity, prompted Vladimir to introduce it into Rus' in the form of Byzantium. Orthodoxy. Christianity founded the class. society and thereby strengthened the position of the ruling class. Therefore, they were the first to accept Christ. religion social elite, people. The masses held their tongues for a long time. beliefs (see Baptism of Rus'). The reign of Vladimir is the peak of the heyday of the K.R., the borders of the swarm have expanded unusually (from the Baltic states and the Carpathians to the Black Sea steppes). After the death of Vladimir (1015), strife arose between his sons, in which two of them were killed: Boris and Gleb, who were later canonized by the church. The killer - Svyatopolk, fled after a fight with his brother Yaroslav Vladimirovich, who became the Kyiv prince (1019-54). In 1021, Bryachislav of Polotsk (1001-44) spoke out against Yaroslav, an alliance with the Crimea was bought at the price of ceding key positions to him for bargaining. the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” - Usvyatsky portage and Vitebsk. After 3 years, his brother Mstislav Tmutarakansky spoke out against Yaroslav. After the battle of Listven (1024), K.R. was divided along the Dnieper: the Right Bank with Kiev went to Yaroslav, the Left Bank - to Mstislav. So in the 20s. 11th century The previously united state began to crumble. After the death of Mstislav (1036), the unity of K.R. was restored. Yaroslav the Wise led energetic efforts to strengthen the state and eliminate the church. dependence on Byzantium (formation in 1037 of an independent metropolitanate) and the expansion of urban planning. Under Yaroslav the Wise, politics became significantly stronger and expanded. K.R.'s connections with the Western states. Europe. In addition to Byzantium, Poland and Norway, K.R. had a dynastic. and other political connections with Germany, France, Hungary and other states. Yaroslav's three sons, who succeeded him, divided their father's possessions, with Izyaslav Yaroslavich receiving Kyiv, Svyatoslav Yaroslavich receiving Chernigov, and Vsevolod Yaroslavich receiving Pereyaslavl. Trying at first to preserve the unity of the K.R. in every possible way and initially acting together, the Yaroslavichs were still unable to prevent the feud. collapse of K.R. The situation was complicated by the onslaught of the Polovtsians (1068). After the defeat of the Yaroslavichs on Alta (1068) people. the militia demanded weapons to resist the enemy. The refusal led to the uprising of 1068 in Kyiv, the flight of Izyaslav and the reign in Kyiv at the will of the masses of Polotsk Vseslav, expelled in 1069 by the combined forces of Izyaslav and the Polish. troops. Soon, discord arose among the three Yaroslavichs, which led to the expulsion of Izyaslav to Poland (1073), who returned to Kiev only after the death of Svyatoslav (1076), but was soon killed in battle (1078). Vsevolod Yaroslavich (1078-93), who became the Kyiv prince, was unable to restrain the objective processes of the collapse of a single state and subjugate the local princes. Only under the influence of the Polovtsian invasions (1093-96 and 1101-03) was a relatively stable time created. the unification of princes around the Kyiv prince to repel a common danger. Now in the three largest centers of Rus' there were princes: Svyatopolk Izyaslavich(1093-1113) in Kyiv, Oleg Svyatoslavich - in Chernigov, in Pereyaslavl - Vsevolod's son Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh - a subtle politician who convinced the princes to unite to fight the Polovtsians. The congresses of princes he convened for this purpose did not justify themselves (see Lyubech Congress of 1097, Dolob Congress of 1103). After the death of Svyatopolk (1113) a fire broke out in Kyiv. insurrection. Monomakh, invited to reign in Kiev, issued a compromise law that eased the situation of debtors (a concession to the rebels), then he strengthened his position by pacifying the Novgorodians, and planted his sons in Pereyaslavl, Smolensk and Novgorod. He had almost sole control over all the military forces. forces of K.R., directed them not only against the Polovtsians, but also against rebellious vassals and neighbors. As a result, the Polovtsian danger was temporarily eliminated. Despite Monomakh's efforts to unite K.R., objective historians. processes continued to develop, which was expressed primarily in the extraordinary growth of the region. centers - Chernigov, Galich-Volynsky, Smolensk, etc., striving for independence. In 1125-1132, Monomakh's son Mstislav Vladimirovich still managed to restrain the centrifugal aspirations of the K.R. units. He, for example, had a plan to influence the rebellious Polotsk princes with the help of a coalition of a number of princes (1128), which ultimately led to a complete victory over the Polotsk princes and to their deportation to Byzantium (1129). After the death of Mstislav (1132), having disintegrated forever, K.R. entered the path of feudalism. fragmentation. Culture. The origins of K.R. culture go deep into the people. culture of glory tribes, the region during the period of formation and development of the state reached a high level and was enriched by the strong influence of the centuries-old culture of Byzantium. As a result, K.R. became one of the most advanced states in culture in its time. The center of the feud. culture was a city. Numerous archaeol. Recent discoveries have led to a number of observations that shed new light on the mountains. culture. Epigraphic ones are especially important. finds - inscriptions on various objects, indicating a fairly wide spread of literacy (see. Birch bark letters). Parchment books written in the era of K.R. have survived to this day: translated literature, collections, liturgical books, etc.; Among them, the oldest is the Ostromir Gospel. The people of K.R. understood the enormous importance of books: “books are the essence of rivers that fill the universe with wisdom.” Yaroslav the Wise, for example, himself “was diligent and read books (them) often both night and day.” On his instructions, the first library in Rus' was organized in Kyiv Sofia. The most educated people in Rus' were monks. Outstanding cultural figures were Kiev Metropolitan Hilarion, Novgorod Bishop Luka Zhidyata, Theodosius of Pechersk, chroniclers Nikon, Nestor, Sylvester. Literacy in Rus' was widespread, as evidenced by the inscriptions on household items. objects (on spindle whorls, barrels, vessels, etc.). There is information about the existence of schools (even for women) in Rus' at that time, and some people (like Theodosius of Pechersk) studied individually. A special feature of K.R. was the use of Russian. language as the state language, while in the West. Europe used Latin, in many countries of the East - Arabic. language, etc. One of the greatest achievements of world culture is Russian. an epic whose creator was the people. Many politicians the events of the era of K.R. were deposited in the people. memory. Old Russian architecture was at a high level. If the first Russian temples were built by the Byzantines. masters (Tithe Church in Kyiv (989), Spassky Cathedral in Chernigov (1036), St. Sophia Cathedrals in Kiev (1037), Novgorod (1045), Polotsk (1044-66), etc.), then later churches were created by Russians. architects Having adopted the experience of Byzantium and preserving the centuries-old traditions of building unique national tongue wooden temples and just secular buildings, russian the builders brought life into Byzantium. static diagram of a stone church. architecture K.R.'s painting is represented by monumental (frescoes, mosaics), easel (icons) painting, as well as book miniatures. Monumental and easel painting are characterized by simplicity and laconism, subordination of the image to the architectonics of the building; for miniatures, on the contrary, - sophistication, bright ornamental surroundings of figures, an abundance of gold, which made it look like jewel. Particularly expressive applied arts K.R., which, despite the prohibition of the church, has preserved many languages. crap. Rustic products are simpler, but retain more language. reminiscences, mountains applied art is richer and is purely artistic. tasks. In the era of K.R., music was widespread, despite the protests of the church, which saw a secular national. music echoes of paganism. Singing and music existed not only in villages and at buffoon performances in cities, but also in the mansions of feudal lords. Kyiv Sofia has preserved a fresco depicting musicians. Oh prince. The Kiev-Pechersk Patericon also informs music. Source: Tale of Bygone Years, parts 1-2, M.-L., 1950; PRP, c. 1, M., 1952. Lit.: Tatishchev V.N., Russian History, vol. 1-2, M., 1962-63; Karamzin N. M., History of the Russian state, vol. 1-3, St. Petersburg, 1903; Soloviev S. M., History of Russia since ancient times, book. 1, M., 1959; Sergeevich V.I., Veche and Prince, M., 1867; Klyuchevsky V. O., Soch., vol. 1, M., 1956; Grekov B.D., Kievan Rus, M., 1953; Yushkov S.V., Essays on the history of feudalism in Kievan Rus, M.-L., 1939; Tikhomirov M. N., Old Russian cities, 2 ed., M., 1956; him. Peasant and urban uprisings in Rus' XI - XIII centuries, M., 1955; Rybakov B. A., Craft of Ancient Rus', M., 1948; Nasonov A.N., “Russian Land” and the formation of the ancient Russian territory. State, M., 1951; History of culture of Ancient Rus', vol. 1-2, M.-L., 1948-51; Essays on the history of the USSR. III - IX centuries., M., 1958; also, IX - XV centuries, part 1 (IX - XIII centuries), M., 1953; Dovzhenok V.Y., Is agriculture ancient? Russia until mid. XIII century, K., 1961; Budovnits I.U., Socio-political. thought of Ancient Rus', M., 1960; Likhachev D.S., Russian chronicles and their cultural and historical. significance, M.-L., 1947; Mavrodin V.V., Education Old Russian. state-va, L., 1945; Rybakov B. A., Ancient Rus'. Tales. Epics. Chronicles, (Moscow, 1963). B. A. Rybakov, L. V. Alekseev. Moscow. -***-***-***- Kievan Rus

Filaret Denisenko, hiding behind the brand “Patriarch of Kiev and All Ukraine-Rus,” recently said regarding the upcoming celebration of the 1025th anniversary of the Baptism of Rus': “ This holiday is ours, Ukrainian. And you need to realize this, because we are talking about baptism Kievan Rus, not Moscow. There was no Moscow at that time, and therefore it was too early for them to celebrate” (1). In other words, Filaret understands “Kievan Rus” a certain state with its capital in Kyiv, which adopted Christianity more than a thousand years ago and which in no case should be confused with a completely different, later state - Muscovite Russia.

You don’t need to be an outstanding historian to know: Moscow really was in the 10th century. It hasn't happened yet. Just like there was no Ukraine. However, Rus' already existed. Filaret corrects: not Rus', but Kyiv Rus! That's what the state was called!

These features of the “patriarch’s” vocabulary are worth dwelling on. In this regard, let us take a short historical excursion. Firstly, in ancient times the concept of “Kievan Rus” never not used. The name of the country and people was just a word "Rus". As an ethnic self-name, it was already used in the treaties of Oleg and Igor with the Greeks in 912 and 945. The Byzantines already called Rus' "Russia". In the “Sermon on Law and Grace” (mid-11th century) the “Russian language (i.e. people)” and “Russian land” are mentioned, in the “Tale of Bygone Years” - “Russian people” (1015), “ Russian people" (1103), in "The Lay of Igor's Campaign" - "Russian land", in "Zadonshchina" - "Russian people". Already from the 11th century. The form “Russian” (with two “s”) is also fixed. At the same time, initially the entire state territory was called Russia (in the “Sermon on Law and Grace”, the Laurentian Chronicle from 1015, the Ipatiev Chronicle from 1125). Only after the collapse of the unified statehood, the name “Rus” in the narrow sense of the word was assigned to the Middle Dnieper region and the Kiev region (in the Ipatiev region - from 1140, in the Laurentian region - from 1152).

The word “Rus” (along with the word “Russia”) has been used in historical science since its inception to designate the vast space in which Russian statehood was formed and developed in the 9th-14th centuries.

What about " Kyiv Rus"? Initially, this concept arose in historical science in the mid-19th century. V narrowly geographical sense: to designate small Dnieper region - Kyiv region. This is exactly how the historian S.M. began to use it. Soloviev (1820-1879), author of the famous 29-volume “History of Russia since Ancient Times” (published since 1851) (2). He, in particular, distinguished between “Kievan Rus', Chernigov Rus' and Rostov or Suzdal Rus'” (3). The same understanding is found in N.I. Kostomarova (“Russian history in the biographies of its main figures”, 1872) (4), V.O. Klyuchevsky (“Complete course of Russian history”, published since 1904) (5) and other historians of the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries.

Since the beginning of the twentieth century. another meaning has appeared - chronological: “Kievan Rus” began to be understood first (Kyiv) period of Russian history(X-XII centuries). Marxist historians N.A. started talking about this. Rozhkov, M.N. Pokrovsky, as well as V.N. Storozhev, M.D. Priselkov et al. (6). If, within the framework of the first understanding, “Kievan Rus” was a geographical part of Rus', then under the second, it was the initial stage of Russian history. Both versions were based on the idea of ​​​​the inseparability of the history of Rus'.

However, at the end of the 19th century. an opposite theory took shape, according to which the historical destinies of Southern Rus' and Northern Rus' were very weakly connected, and Southern Rus' was proclaimed the historical predecessor of Ukraine alone. This theory, in particular, was intensively cultivated by M.S. Grushevsky (1866-1934). However, Grushevsky did not use the concept of “Kievan Rus”. He coined the term “Kiev State” (“Kiev State”), although he also used its synonym “Russian State” (“Russian State”) (7). Ukrainian nationalist historiography did not favor “Kievan Rus”: in the meanings of that time, it seemed to dissolve within the spatial or historical boundaries of greater Rus-Russia.

Approval of the concept of “Kievan Rus” in state-political sense - how official name of the East Slavic stateIX- XIIcenturies with its capital in Kyiv - happened only in Soviet times. In this sense, “Kievan Rus” was first used in Soviet history textbooks written after 1934, together with the “Short Course on the History of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks).” Textbooks were written at the direction of Stalin and underwent his personal editing ( 8). Academician B.D. Grekov, who was responsible for preparing sections until the 17th century, simultaneously prepared his main works: “Kievan Rus” (1939) and “Culture of Kievan Rus” (1944), which received the Stalin Prize. Grekov, following Grushevsky (since 1929, a member of the USSR Academy of Sciences), used the concept of “Kievan State”, but for the first time identified it with “Kievan Rus”. Since then, the concept of “Kievan Rus” began to be used precisely in this Stalinist meaning.

Grekov wrote: “I consider it necessary to point out once again that in my work I deal with Kievan Rus not in narrow-territorial sense of this term (Ukraine), namely in the broad sense of the “Rurikovich empire”, corresponding to the Western European “empire of Charlemagne” - including a huge territory on which several independent state units were subsequently formed. It cannot be said that the process of feudalization during the studied period of time throughout the entire vast expanse of the territory Kyiv State proceeded at a completely parallel pace: along the great waterway “from the Varangians to the Greeks” it undoubtedly developed more intensively and was ahead central interfluve [Volga and Oka, - F.G.]. A general study of this process only in the main centers of this part of Europe, occupied by the Eastern Slavs, seems to me in some respects admissible, but even then with constant consideration of the differences in the natural, ethnic and historical conditions of each of the large parts of this association” (9). So, Grekov directly denied the main pre-revolutionary use of the term “Kievan Rus” (“narrow-territorial”), and also noted that the territories of the vast “Kievan State”, where Moscow is now located, were poorly developed, and later generally began their independent development (as France and Germany after the collapse of the Carolingian Empire). This is exactly the scheme that is now being voiced by the “patriarch of all Ukraine-Rus.”

Did he really read the works of Grekov? Extremely doubtful. But the secret of such coincidences is revealed simply. Little Misha Denisenko went to Donetsk school in 1936. There, in the 3rd grade, he received a brand new textbook, “A Short Course in the History of the USSR,” 1937 edition, developed with the active participation of Grekov. It read: “Since the beginning of the 10th century, the Kievan Principality of the Slavs has been called Kievan Rus” (p. 13). Little Misha could well imagine the ancient Russian red-green border pillars from the time of Prince Oleg, on which the official name of the state was written: “Kievan Rus”. As stated in the same textbook, the “Russian national state” appeared only under Ivan III (p. 32). Thus, Misha learned: Kievan Rus has nothing to do with the Russians. Comrade Stalin, the main author of this textbook, was a friend of all schoolchildren, so Mikhail Antonovich firmly remembered “Kievan Rus” for many years. Let's not be demanding of him. He was just a proper Soviet schoolboy.

(2) “Kiev region (Rus in the narrowest sense)” (S. M. Soloviev, History of Russia since ancient times. M., 1993. Book 1. T. 1. Chapter 1. P. 25). “Askold and Dir became the leaders of a fairly large gang, the surrounding clearings had to submit to them... Askold and Dir settled in the glade town of Kiev... so the importance of Kiev in our history was discovered early on - a consequence of the clashes between Kievan Rus and Byzantium” (Ibid. Chapter 5 pp. 99-100).

(3) Ibid. T. 2. Ch. 6. P. 675.

(4) “Then Kievan Rus was disturbed by the Pechenegs, a nomadic and equestrian people. For about a century they had been attacking the Russian region and, under Vladimir’s father, during his absence, they almost took Kyiv. Vladimir repulsed them with success and, caring both about increasing military strength and increasing the population in the region adjacent to Kiev, populated the cities or fortified places he built along the banks of the Sula, Stugna, Trubezh, Desna rivers with settlers from different lands, not only Russian- Slavic, but also Chud” (http://www.magister.msk.ru/library/history/kostomar/kostom01.htm).

(5) Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history. A complete course of lectures in three books. Book 1. M., 1993. S. 111, 239-251.

(6) Rozhkov N.A. Review of Russian history from a sociological point of view. Part 1. Kievan Rus (from the 6th to the end of the 12th century). Ed. 2nd. 1905; Pokrovsky M.N. Russian history from ancient times. T. 1. 1910; Kievan Rus. Collection of articles ed. V.N. Storozheva. Volume 1. 2nd revision. ed. 1910. Preface; Priselkov M.D. Essays on the church-political history of Kievan Rus of the X-XII centuries. St. Petersburg, 1913.

(7) See: Grushevsky M.S. History of Ukraine-Rus (1895); him, Essay on the history of the Ukrainian people. 2nd ed. 1906. pp. 5-6, 63-64, 66, 68, 81, 84.

(8) Dubrovsky A.M. Historian and power: historical science in the USSR and the concept of the history of feudal Russia in the context of politics and ideology (1930-1950s). Bryansk: Bryansk State Publishing House. University named after acad. I. G. Petrovsky, 2005. P. 170-304 (Chapter IV). http://www.opentextnn.ru/history/historiography/?id=2991

(9) Grekov B.D. Kievan Rus. M., 1939. Ch. 4; http://bibliotekar.ru/rusFroyanov/4.htm