Let us imagine a forest capable of bearing fruit. The crowns of the trees are closed into a dense canopy. Silence and twilight. Somewhere high above, seeds are ripening. And so they ripened and fell to the ground. Some of them, finding themselves in favorable conditions, sprouted. So he appeared in the forest forest regrowth- young generation of trees.

What conditions do they find themselves in? The conditions are not very favorable. There is not enough light, there is not enough space for the roots, everything is already occupied by the roots of large trees. But we have to survive, to win.

Young generation of the forest

Young generation of the forest, replacing the old one, is important for renewal. Naturally, existing in harsh conditions, with a lack of light and a constant lack of nutrients in the soil, the undergrowth does not look good. A common feature of adolescence is severe depression. Here is an example of such oppression. Spruce undergrowth, only one and a half meters high, can have a fairly respectable age - 60 and even 80 years. Over the same years, fellow juveniles, grown from the same seeds somewhere in a nursery or near a forest, can reach a height of 15 meters. It is very difficult for a teenager to exist. But he nevertheless adapts to the living conditions under the maternal canopy and patiently waits for changes in his living conditions.

It depends on your luck: either the mature trees will die or the young trees will die. It also happens that people interfere in this fight by choosing ripe trees for their needs. The regrowth then recovers and subsequently becomes new forest.

Particularly tenacious spruce undergrowth. In a depressed state, he sometimes lives almost half of his life, up to 180 years. One cannot help but admire his vitality and boundless adaptability, which, however, is understandable.

You have to be very careful with teenagers.. Without knowing his specific growth, driven by the most noble motives - to give him freedom, we can nevertheless destroy him. Living in dim light and suddenly receiving the long-awaited freedom from inexperienced hands, he unexpectedly dies. As they say, a teenager is “scared” of light. The needles quickly turn yellow and fall off, because they are adapted to a different mode of operation, to different living conditions. On the other hand, a teenager suddenly exposed to freedom may die of thirst. Not because there is not enough moisture in the soil. Maybe there is even more of it there, but with its poorly developed roots and needles the undergrowth cannot quench its thirst,

What's the matter? But the fact is that previously, under the mother’s canopy in a humid atmosphere, the young shoots had enough moisture. Now the wind has begun to blow around, the physiological evaporation of the undergrowth has increased, and the pitiful crown and root system are unable to supply the tree with a sufficient amount of moisture.

Of course, earlier parent trees oppressed and suppressed young growth, but at the same time they protected them from the wind and from frost, to which young spruce, fir, oak, and beech are so sensitive; protected from excessive solar radiation and created a soft, humid atmosphere.

Since ancient times, people have used the wonderful properties of plants - to provide food and warmth. But in addition to these properties, people noticed that plants can influence a person’s destiny, as well as heal him from diseases, both physical and spiritual. Since ancient times, people have revered trees and sacred groves. People came to them for treatment, to pray, to ask for protection or love. From time immemorial, trees have been credited with magical powers. It was believed that human guardian spirits lived in them. There are many signs, beliefs and rituals associated with trees.

In the folk culture of the Slavs, a tree is an object of worship. In ancient Russian monuments of the 11th-17th centuries. It is reported that the pagans worshiped “growings” and “trees”, and praying under them (“growing... zhryahy”). Apparently, these were, as a rule, fenced areas of the forest. The groves were considered reserved; trees were not cut down in them, and brushwood was not collected. Among the Slavs, many groves and protected forests have “sacred” names: “divine forest”, “gai-god”, “goddess”, “righteous forest”, “Svyatibor”.

The category of revered and sacred trees also included individual trees, especially old ones, growing alone in a field or near healing springs. People came to these trees to get rid of diseases, the evil eye, infertility and other misfortunes. They brought gifts and sacrifices (they hung towels, clothes, rags on the trees), prayed, and touched the trees. The sick climbed through the hollows and crevices of such trees, as if leaving their illnesses outside this hole. When Christianity appeared in Rus', in order to attract people to churches, churches were built right in the illuminated groves. This is evidenced by numerous traditions, legends and apocryphal tales about the construction of churches near revered trees. Various rituals were performed near sacred trees.

The Southern Slavs practiced the custom of “crowning” young people around a tree (or preceding the wedding ceremony with this action). Among the Serbs, Bulgarians and Macedonians, many rituals and celebrations took place at the “record” - a sacred tree (usually an oak or fruit tree). Here they had festive meals, slaughtered sacrificial animals, burned bonfires at Maslenitsa; near the “zapischka” they took oaths, held trials, etc.. It was possible to confess to the old hazel tree - in the absence of a priest: kneeling down and clasping it with his hands, a person repented of his sins and asked the tree for forgiveness - this suggests that before After the advent of Christianity, trees were a link between God and people (the world of people and the world of gods). Oaks, elms and other large trees were classified as reserved. It was forbidden to cut them down or cause any harm at all. Violation of these prohibitions led to human death, livestock death, and crop failure. Such trees were considered the patrons of the surrounding areas - villages, houses, wells, lakes, and protected from hail, fires, and natural disasters.

A tree as a metaphor for the road, as a path along which one can reach the afterlife, is a common motif of Slavic beliefs and rituals associated with death.

Characteristic ideas are about the post-mortem transition of the human soul into a tree. Thus, the Belarusians believed that in every creaking tree the soul of the deceased languishes, which asks passers-by to pray for it; if after such a prayer a person falls asleep under a tree, he will dream of a soul that will tell how long ago and why it was imprisoned in this tree. The Serbs believed that a person’s soul finds peace in the tree growing on his grave; Therefore, you cannot pick fruits from cemetery trees and break branches. Slavic ballads about people sworn in trees are associated with these beliefs. Such folklore stories usually refer to people who died a premature death, before their allotted time; their interrupted life seems to strive for continuation in other forms. A tree, like a plant in general, is related to a person by external characteristics: trunk - body, roots - legs, branches - arms, juices - blood, etc. There are “male” and “female” trees (birch - birch, oak - oak), which differ in shape: birch branches spread out to the sides, birch branches upward. When a child is born, a tree is planted for him, believing that the child will grow in the same way as this tree develops. At the same time, in some beliefs, the growth of such a tree causes exhaustion of a person and leads to his death. Therefore, we tried not to plant large trees near the house.

The tree is closely connected with the field of demonology. This is the habitat of various mythological creatures. Mermaids live on birch trees, witches flocked to giant oak trees on Kupala night, the devil sits in the roots of elderberries, in hollow willows, pitchforks and samodivas on large spreading trees, with the branches of which they play, often demons live in thorny bushes (hawthorn is a pitchfork tree).

S. Yesenin said: “Russians have everything from the Tree - this is the religion of thought of our people.” And he explained why and why wood is usually embroidered only on towels. This has a deep meaning. “A tree is life,” writes the poet. – Every morning, getting up from sleep, we wash our faces with water. Water is a symbol of purification... By wiping their face on a canvas with a picture of a tree, our people say that they have not forgotten the secret of the ancient fathers of wiping themselves with leaves, that they remember themselves as the seed of a supermundane tree, and, running under its cover, plunging their face into a towel, they as if he wants to imprint at least a small branch of it on his cheeks, so that, like a tree, he can shed the cones of words and thoughts from himself and stream the shadow of virtue from the branches-hands.”

Tree of Life.

The tree generally occupied a special place in the life of the pagan Slavs. There is a legend that a long time ago, when there was neither heaven nor earth, but only the blue sea splashing everywhere, there stood in the middle of it two oak trees, on whose branches sat two doves. One day the pigeons fluttered, then dived to the bottom of the sea and brought sand and pebbles from there. The sky and earth and all the heavenly bodies were built from this material.

Since those ancient times, the myth of the tree of life has come. The Slavs believed that it served as the axis, the center of the whole world and, as it were, embodied the entire universe. The roots of this amazing tree, which was called the world tree, embraced the entire earth, reaching to the depths of the underworld. Its crown rested on the vault of heaven. In it for ancient man ideas about space and time were embodied. It is no coincidence that a riddle arose: “There is an oak tree, there are 12 branches on the oak tree, on each branch there are four nests, in each nest there are seven chicks.” This was the mythical image of the year: twelve months, each of them containing four weeks, and a week of seven days. (Then counting was carried out by lunar months).

In the folklore of the Slavic peoples - fairy tales, riddles, conspiracies - the image of the tree of life often appears. Most often it is a mighty oak tree that has lived on earth for several centuries. In one of the famous fairy tales, an old man climbed such an oak tree and reached the very sky. There he saw wonderful millstones - the emblem of a spring thunderstorm, giving people rain and fertility. Yes, and conspiracies against diseases most often begin with a joke that on the sea-okiyan, on the island of Buyan, where the Alatyr stone lies, there is a “damask oak”.

Images of the external and internal world of ancient man were strung on the axis tree. It systematized this world, gave it harmony, where every object or phenomenon, every living creature had its place.

At the top of the crown sat a deity - menacing, inaccessible. Birds found shelter in the branches. Bees swarmed around the trunk, moose, deer, horses, cows, and sometimes people crowded around. The roots gathered snakes, frogs and even fish around themselves. There were also demons and other evil spirits chained there. From this tree comes a fragrance, and from its root twelve springs flow with milk and honey. Sometimes the upper deity entered into battle with the “lower tier,” stopping the encroachments of snakes and dragons on the “warm-blooded” ones located near the trunk. According to legends, the tree is the path along which snakes go to the mythical land of vyves in the fall.

The tree, which connects the earthly and underground worlds, also appears in Western Slavic mythological stories about children replaced by demons. To get her son back, the woman takes the changeling under some tree, and later takes her child from there. Things that needed to be disposed of - sent to the next world (objects that had been in contact with the deceased, old wedding attributes, etc.) were thrown onto the tree (or taken to it), etc. There were, in addition, customs of burning, burying and discarding water these items.

Cult trees, symbolizing the world tree, have accompanied many important events in human life for centuries.

An indispensable participant in a traditional Slavic wedding was the world tree, its image. Bridesmaids sing about him, promising the newlyweds happiness and wealth. And when a new house was built, it was customary to place a ritual tree in the center of the building. Well, on folk holidays, such as on Trinity, you cannot do without a birch tree; all courtyards, houses and churches are decorated with green branches.

“A Christmas tree was born in the forest”... Everyone, young and old, knows this song. While dancing around the dressed-up forest beauty, the children do not even suspect that they are performing ritual actions, part of the myth-making of our distant ancestors. Likewise, many centuries ago, people gathered around the tree, brought sacrifices to its roots, sang, and performed ritual dances, in which every movement had a symbolic meaning.

To this day, in some places the following custom has still been preserved. If a guy brings a tree dug up in the forest and plants it under a girl’s window, this is clearly perceived as a declaration of love, a marriage proposal.

The tree of life was usually depicted with eight branches, four on each side. When depicting him, four colors were most often used: black, red, blue and white. The branches, trunk and roots of the world tree connect, respectively, the upper, middle and lower worlds, and the branches – the cardinal directions.

Oak

Since ancient times, it was a sacred tree among the Slavs - the king of forests. Oak rightfully takes first place in the Slavic arboretum. The Russians called it Tsar Oak, and, according to legend, the king of birds, the eagle, lived on it. God the Father appeared under the name or in the form of an oak tree. In folk ideas, oak acts as a symbol of masculinity, dominance, strength, power, and hardness. It is no coincidence that in conspiracies his constant epithets are “iron” or “damask steel,” and the proverb says about him: “You can’t knock down an oak tree in one go.” They say about strong strong men: strong as an oak (oak tree).

The Slavs especially distinguished and revered the oak among other trees. Perhaps at first they called all trees the word “oak”. It is no coincidence that the words “club” and “club” derived from it refer not only to an oak club.

The oak was revered as a deity. Sacrifices were made at its foot. Idols were hewn from oak wood. And the fire on the temple could only be “fed” with oak wood. The people considered the oak to be connected by invisible threads with the supreme deity Perun. After all, this tree seemed to attract lightning to itself. And today, during a thunderstorm, you shouldn’t take shelter under an oak tree - it’s dangerous. These are echoes of the main myth of the Eastern Slavs about the duel of Perun with an enemy who is hiding under an oak tree. The Slavs had a ban on growing oak near the house, since, according to legend, thunder strikes the oak first.

Mostly our ancestors and legends about the world tree attributed it to oak. This is exactly what an oak tree looks like in a Russian spell: “...There is the Holy Akiyan Sea, on that sea there is an island, on that island there is an oak tree, from earth to heaven, from east to west, from the new moon to the old one...”

Faith and worship of the oak tree continued for so long that after Russia adopted Christianity, under pain of church court, “Petit’s prayer service in front of the oak tree” was prohibited. After all, just as the gods decided the fate of the whole world and people in particular, sitting under the world tree, so they carried out judgment under the mighty oaks, believing that the sentences pronounced here were sanctified by the deity. There were entire protected sacred oak groves. It was considered blasphemy to enter such a place while walking, much less to pick a branch from a tree. For this, the Magi-priests could condemn the “sacrilege” even to death.

It was everywhere forbidden to cut down sacred oak trees. It was believed that any attempt to harm them (cut them down, break a branch, peel off the bark, and even use their dead wood for firewood) would result in misfortune for the person or for everyone living nearby. Belarusians believed that if you start chopping an old oak, then blood will appear from under the ax - the tree will cry tears of blood.

Archaeological finds also indicate the cult role of the oak: in 1975, an ancient oak tree was raised from the bottom of the Dnieper, into the trunk of which 9 boar jaws were inserted. In 1910, a similar oak was extracted from the bottom of the Desna River. Apparently, these trees were used in making sacrifices.

Oak groves were open-air sanctuaries.

The veneration of the oak tree, like many other pagan beliefs, entered Christianity as a symbol of veneration of Christ and the Virgin Mary. Oak, along with aspen, was one of several types of trees from which it was believed that the cross of the Lord could be made. Because of its hardness and endurance, the oak tree has become a symbol of the strength of faith and virtue, as well as the fortitude of Christians in the face of adversity.

The Russian apocrypha spoke of how Judas wanted to hang himself on an oak tree, but “by God’s command the oak bowed down and was preserved.”

A Bulgarian legend told how an oak grove hid God, who was fleeing from the Plague; In gratitude for this, God made sure that the leaves from the oak tree fell only in late autumn.

In beliefs, practical magic and folklore, the oak consistently appears as a male symbol. In signs and prohibitions, the oak is compared with the owner of the house, the head of the family. For example, the Nizhny Novgorod expression “Oak tree bark!” - meaning the husband’s order for his wife to undress him and take off her boots. After bathing a newborn boy, water is poured under an oak tree; when the bride is brought into her husband’s house, she enters first and says to herself: “There are oak trees near the yard, and sons in the house,” if she wants boys to be born to her. In the Vitebsk region, a midwife cut a boy’s umbilical cord on an oak block so that he would grow up strong.

In the Tver province, until the beginning of the 20th century, there was a custom: as soon as a boy was born, his father went into the forest and cut down several oak trees, the logs of which were then taken to the river and immersed in water. There they remained until their son grew up. When he intended to get married, oak logs, which had already turned into bog wood, so strong that it could not be cut with an ax, were taken out of the water and used as the foundation of a house for a new family.

Residents of Polesie considered it unacceptable for an oak tree to grow near their home: they believed that if there was this tree next to the house, then there would be no owner in the house. The Poleshchuks were convinced that if this happened, then as soon as the oak tree reached a size that would allow it to be made into a tombstone cross, the owner of the house would immediately die. According to local beliefs, an oak tree located near a dwelling generally “survives” the men from it.

An oak tree (like a tree in general) modeled the birth and growth of a child (the custom of planting a tree at the birth of a baby). Sometimes the child himself planted an oak tree, then the child’s health was judged by its growth and development: “When a boy plants an oak tree smaller than himself near his hut, it will outgrow the lad’s oak tree - the lad will be healthy, the oak tree does not grow - the lad will get sick.”

The Eastern Slavs have a known prohibition against growing oak trees from acorns: it was believed that a person who planted an acorn would die as soon as the tree became as tall as him. The role of oak in wedding ceremonies is also known. In the Voronezh province, the ancient custom was respected; Coming out of the church after the wedding, the newlyweds headed to the oak tree and drove around three times.

The strength of oak led to its widespread use in funeral rites: for a long time coffins, which in former times were a hollowed out log, and grave crosses were made from it. This can be seen in words and stable combinations of words used in modern language that denote a transition to another world: “look into an oak tree” - die, “give an oak tree”, “put some clothes on” - die. In Russian riddles, death is most often riddled through the image of an oak tree:

At the Tatar border

There is a veretya oak,

No one will go around, no one will go around:

Neither the king, nor the queen, nor the red maiden.

The properties of oak were taken into account in folk medicinal practice. In conspiracies against the most terrible diseases, the image of an oak tree is one of the most common. They not only turned to him in conspiracies, but also used oak trees in the treatment itself.

If a person has back pain, it is good to lean against an oak trunk at the first thunder of spring. There is a well-known East Slavic custom of tucking an oak branch into the belt on the back so that the back does not hurt during the harvest, etc. The Poles hung oak wreaths on the horns of cows so that the cows would be strong and so that the horns would not break when gored.

In the folk medicine of the southern Slavs, a popular way of treating childhood illnesses, as well as a way to stop child mortality in the family, was the custom of placing cut hair and nails of a sick child or a thread with which the child was previously measured into an oak tree trunk, and then hammering this hole with a peg: when the child outgrows it hole, the disease will leave him.

The oak served as an object to which diseases were symbolically transferred. Belarusians poured water under a young oak tree in which they washed a consumptive patient; Poles with abscesses in their mouths spat into a hole dug under an oak tree; Ukrainians, Poles, Czechs, Moravians left the clothes of the sick person on the oak tree; Bulgarians, Serbs and Macedonians visited revered oak trees and tied ribbons and threads from clothes to their branches. Ukrainians hung towels and skeins of thread on oak trees as a vow.

To relieve a toothache, you need to bite an oak sliver on the sore tooth.

Better yet, find an old oak tree in the forest, next to which springs emerge from the ground, tear off the bark from the branch and soak it in spring water. If you wear such a talisman in your amulet, your teeth will never be disturbed at all.

A sick child can be cured if you split the trunk of a young oak tree in the forest and drag the baby three times between the splits. And then tie the trunk with a rope or sash.

You can walk around the tree with the baby three more times nine times, and then hang a piece of baby clothing on its branch. As the fabric left behind decays, so will the illness leave. From this ritual, the tradition subsequently arose of decorating trees with rags and ribbons, which began to be perceived as sacrifices to forest spirits.

Oaks were considered the habitat of mythological characters. For example, according to the beliefs of the Eastern Slavs, witches flocked to giant oak trees on Kupala night. Among the southern Slavs, large oaks, elms and beeches were called “Samovil”, or “Samodiv” (Samodivs, pitchforks, devils gathered on them).

Green oak near Lukomorye

Golden chain on the oak tree

Day and night the cat is a scientist

Everything goes round and round in a chain

He goes to the right - the song starts.

To the left - he tells a fairy tale.

There are miracles there, the devil wanders there,

A mermaid sits on the branches.

Narrated by A.S. Pushkin.

The presence of oak fruits brings its magical properties closer to the magical properties of fruit trees. Thus, rituals against infertility are usually performed under fruit trees, but sometimes under oak trees.

Oak branches were used as a talisman, stuck into windows and doors of houses before the Kupala night.

The Slavs made amulet from oak bark.

Ancient sages predicted fate by listening to the rustling of oak branches.

In love magic, in order to bring a guy and a girl together, they used a decoction infused with chips of oak and birch, chopped off in the place where these trees grew together.

A love spell on oak was also used. They tied oak and birch together. Having tied the knot, they said: “As I tied you together, so I am tied forever with the servant of God (name). Amen". Then they left without looking back, and never came to this place again.

Birch.

Since ancient times, the slender white-trunked birch tree has become a symbol of Russia. And although birch trees grow all over the world, nowhere are they loved and honored as much as in our homeland.

This has been the case throughout the ages. After all, birch in Slavic mythology was also considered a sacred tree. Sometimes not only the oak, but the birch was revered by our ancestors as the world tree. This idea remained in the ancient conspiracy: “On the ocean sea, on the island of Buyan, there is a white birch tree with its branches down and its roots up.”

Linguists associate the Russian name for birch with the verb to preserve. This is due to the fact that the Slavs considered birch to be a gift from the gods that protects people.

The Slavic rune is associated with the birch - Bereginya - Birch, Fate, Mother, Earth.

Bereginya in the Slavic tradition is a female image associated with protection and the protective maternal principle. In archaic antiquity, Makosh, the Mother Goddess, in charge of earthly fertility and the destinies of all living things, acted under the name Beregini. This rune is the rune of fate.

About the origin and natural properties Birch trees are narrated by legends and beliefs, often associated with biblical characters. In folk legends, the birch acts as a blessed tree, since it sheltered the devil from persecution. Friday, and she also sheltered the Mother of God and Jesus from bad weather: that is why she enjoys the patronage of all three. Or, on the contrary, the birch was considered a tree cursed by God, with the branches of which Christ was whipped. In eastern Polesie there is a legend about the human origin of this tree: birches are the daughters of the first man - Adam - who grew into the ground with their braids, and the sap of the birch is their tears. The white color of the tree trunk is explained in legend by the fact that the birch tree, when Judas wanted to hang himself on it, turned white from fear, but did not accept the traitor.

In Slavic ballads, legends, and fairy tales, it is said that a ruined girl turns into a birch tree. A Belarusian song sings about a birch tree that grew on the grave of a bride who was poisoned by the groom’s mother.

In traditional culture, the birch tree symbolizes the feminine principle. In many beliefs, rituals, and ritual songs, in folklore texts, it is contrasted with the oak tree as a male symbol.

The tender birch tree was revered as a female symbol and was considered the patroness of young girls. Brides came to her both in days of joy and in hours of despair. Clinging to the thin white trunk, they dried their tears, as if absorbing faith, hope, love.

Any spring holiday in Rus' in honor of the awakening nature would not be complete without birch. On Trinity Day, churches and houses were decorated with young birch branches. It was believed that the tree would not be “offended” if it was cut down with love in the name of such a great holiday.

In many Russian provinces on Semnik they went into the forest, chose a young birch tree, decorated it, curled wreaths on its branches, arranged a joint meal under it, danced in circles, and told fortunes. Then, with the felled birch tree (which was sometimes called “semik”), they walked around the village and, at the end of the ritual, threw the birch into the water, into the fire, into the ravine (that is, they “sored off the birch”, “buried” it). The girls had fun with the birch tree, asked for a share of it, and washed themselves with birch sap for beauty and health. This ritual survived until the beginning of the 20th century. and maybe somewhere it is being revived these days.

Trinity morning, morning canon,

In the grove, the birch trees are ringing white.

Written by Sergei Yesenin.

There was such a sign: the girl who was the first to sit down on Trinity Sunday in the shade of the treasured birch tree would be the first among her friends to get married. They also believed that if you sit in the shade of the Trinity birch tree and make a wish, it will certainly come true.

In the mythological ideas of the Slavs, the period of Trinity and Semik referred to those calendar periods when ancestors temporarily left the “other world” and appeared in the world of the living. Their place of residence on earth was the fresh greenery of birch trees. Therefore, for the souls of the “parents,” birch trees were brought from the forest and installed near the houses. These days we went to the cemetery, they brought birch branches, wreaths, and brooms here. The main ritual action was the “plowing” of the graves. They were covered with birch branches, after which the branches were stuck into the grave soil.

Trinity Week was also called “Rusal”: according to legend, only this week mermaids appeared on earth. The birch tree was considered the favorite habitat of mermaids. In mermaid songs they are imagined sitting on a green or crooked birch tree. So, in the Smolensk region they sang:

At Varot Birch

Zilina was freezing

Vettikym waved;

On the one on the birch tree

The mermaid sat down...

They imagined that mermaids lived on weeping birches, swayed on their branches or sat under a tree. Branches were woven on birch trees especially for swinging mermaids.

Thus, the use of birch in Trinity rites was determined by ideas about the image of this tree as the embodiment of fertility, as an object connecting the world of the living and the world of the dead and mythological creatures.

During Trinity Week, girls performed fortune telling, most of which were related to the birch tree. So, for example, at night they wove birch branches with grass into a braid, and the next morning they looked: if the braid came unraveled, then be married this year, if not, stay a girl. They also threw woven wreaths onto a birch tree: depending on whether the wreath caught on the tree or fell to the ground, they decided whether the girl would get married in the next wedding season or not. Wreaths made of birch branches, which were worn on the head all week, were thrown into the river: if the wreath drowns - to death, if it washes to its shore - it awaits the continuation of girlhood, if it floats away to someone else's shore - it will certainly be married.

In popular belief, birch was endowed with protective properties. Birch branches, especially used in Trinity and other calendar rites, were considered a reliable amulet by the Slavs. Tucked under the roof of the house, they reliably protected from lightning, thunder and hail; stuck in the middle of crops in a field protects from rodents and birds; abandoned on garden beds - they protect the cabbage from caterpillars. With the help of birch branches they tried to protect themselves from evil spirits, especially the “walking dead”. On the eve of Ivan Kypala, birch branches stuck into the walls of the barn prevented the witches from milking milk from other people's cows and harming them in general. On the eve of Ivan Kupala, wreaths of birch branches were placed on the horns of cows so that the cattle would be healthy and produce healthy offspring.

Among the Western Slavs, a birch broom leaned against the bed of a woman in labor or the cradle of a newborn was considered a reliable amulet.

At the same time, birch is often mentioned as an attribute of evil spirits in demonological beliefs and epics. The witch could milk milk from birch branches, and could also fly not only on a broom or a bread shovel, but also on a birch stick. The white horses given to man by the devil turned into crooked birch trees, and the bread given by the devil into birch bark; a woman who was “possessed” by a demon during a seizure “threw” onto a birch tree.. Recently, during excavations near Novgorod, archaeologists found letters written on birch bark by our ancestors almost ten centuries ago. But birch bark is birch bark. The ancient Slavs wrote similar messages, “petitions” to the goblin, the water spirit, on birch bark and pinned them to the tree. They prayed not to deprive the hunter of game, to return lost cattle, to protect him in the forest or on the river.

Conflicting attitudes towards birch are also reflected in popular beliefs.

In some places it was believed that a birch tree planted next to a house would scare away evil and protect from lightning, and it was specially planted with the birth of a child.

In others, on the contrary, they were afraid to plant a birch tree next to the house, citing the fact that the birch tree “cries” a lot and that lightning strikes it again. In Polesie it was believed that a birch tree planted close to a house causes female diseases in its inhabitants; that growths form on birch trees from “women’s curses.”

In the Russian North, a place where birches once grew was considered unlucky, and a new house was not built on it. At the same time, sometimes and in many places birch trees were specially planted near the house for the well-being of the family. A birch branch installed at the front corner during the construction of a house was a symbol of the health of the owner and family. Birch branches were stuck into the field to get a good harvest of flax and cereals. A birch log was buried under the threshold of the new stable, “to guide the horses.” In ancient times, cradles were woven from branches to protect children from illness. If you tie a red ribbon on the trunk of a birch tree, it will protect you from the evil eye.

And yet, more often than not, birch was used as a talisman against evil forces.

They also turned to birch for help when they were ill. If you hit someone who is sick with a birch twig, it will help better than a doctor. And if you pour water under a tree after bathing a sick child and say the desired spell, the disease will spread to the birch tree. You just need to remember to say a conspiracy against a disease, like this one, from angina pectoris: “I’ll throw the toad under the Birch bush so that it doesn’t hurt, so that it doesn’t ache.”

They turned to the birch tree with a request for healing; they also twisted the branches of the tree over the sick person, threatening not to let go until the disease receded from the person.

In Mazovia, a person suffering from malaria had to shake a birch tree with the sentence “Shake me as I shake you, and then stop.”

Birch branches were used to impart fertility not only to the land and livestock, but also to newlyweds. The Slavs carried children through a split birch trunk to save the child from the disease (the birch tree takes it upon itself).

Birch is a “lucky” tree that protects from evil. They said about her: “There is a tree: the cry calms, the light instructs, the sick heals.”

A birch tree growing next to the house drives away nightmares.

The buds, branches, leaves, bark, sap of birch, and growths on the trunk were considered especially healing. The branches blessed in the church on calendar holidays were used to whip the sick person to impart to him the power of the plant. Decoctions for various diseases were made from buds, leaves and growths. Birch sap has long been considered a rejuvenating and cleansing agent. In the spring, especially on holidays, girls and women drank juice and washed their faces with it for beauty and health.

Birch was used in folk magic as a love potion. They cut a birch twig growing to the east and tore off its leaves; the twig was placed on the threshold over which the person being thought about must step, and the leaves, dried and crushed into powder, were placed close to the heart. When the person they thought about came, the powder was mixed into some drink and given to drink. They did it in an unnoticed way.

In Polesie, in order to bewitch a guy, a girl took a branch of a birch tree that had grown together with an oak tree, quietly walked around the guy with it, or gave him a decoction of the bark of this birch to drink.

Birch also played a significant role in life cycle rituals. In marriage rituals, it was used as a wedding attribute - a decorated tree, which was a symbol of each specific bride and the circle of girls as a whole. In the Russian North, birch was an obligatory attribute when preparing a bride's bathhouse: the branches of the tree were stuck into the ceiling and walls of the bathhouse, the road to it was “marked” with lined branches, and a decorated birch broom was fixed on the top of the bathhouse. To carry out the pre-wedding ablution, the bride tried to choose birch firewood.

Its branches were stuck into a wedding loaf so that everyone in the house would be healthy.

In the East Slavic funeral tradition, birch was used directly in preparing the “place” for the deceased: the coffin was most often covered with birch leaves or brooms, and they were used to stuff a pillow that was placed under the head of the deceased. Birch trees were also planted on the grave.

The intermediary role of the birch in the mythological picture of the world space explains the contradictory ideas about it in popular beliefs. In any case, numerous descriptions of rituals and actions with birch indicate deep reverence for this tree.

Rowan.

In Ancient Rus', the mountain ash was considered the personification of the feminine principle. She was also a symbol of modesty and elegance. Many ritual songs and ceremonies were dedicated to this tree.

Rowan - tree of newlyweds. In the old days, the beautiful rowan tree was used to protect newlyweds: its leaves were spread and hidden in their shoes and pockets. It was believed that they would prevent the evil deeds of sorcerers and witches. And in general, for the well-being of the house, they tried to plant rowan trees near it. The ancient Slavs believed that a person with bad intentions would not enter a house with rowan trees planted under the windows.

In the Russian folk calendar there is a day “Peter-Paul Fieldfare”. It falls at the end of September - the time of ripening of rowan berries. On this day, rowan branches were picked into bunches and hung under the roofs of houses, barns, and various outbuildings. Branches were also stuck at the edge of each field. This custom is associated with the idea of ​​rowan as a tree that can protect from all sorts of troubles.

Rowan was considered a talisman in magic and folk healing. The Slavs said: “Stay under the mountain ash - you will scare away the disease.”

For various illnesses, a person climbed through a rowan bush three times. The Life of Adrian Poshekhonsky tells that after the saint’s martyrdom (1550), his body was buried in a wasteland where rowan trees grew. Once a year, on Elijah Friday, people from different cities came to this place and organized a fair; sick people came here - adults and children, who climbed through the rowan branches, looking for healing. According to Russian and Belarusian beliefs, those who harm the mountain ash will have toothache. In case of toothache, secretly at dawn they knelt down in front of the rowan tree, hugged and kissed it and uttered a spell: “Rowan berry, rowan berry, take my illness, from now on I will not eat you forever,” and then returned home, without looking back and trying not to no one to meet.

If you take out the core of a rowan growing on an anthill and say: “Do you, rowan, root or body hurt? So God’s servant (name) would not have toothache forever.”

In a collection of conspiracies of the second quarter of the 17th century. Several texts addressed to the mountain ash have been preserved from the Olonets region. “Conspiracy from portage, exile, commotion” was pronounced in the spring near a rowan tree standing on an anthill; You could also make a staff from a rowan tree, chew it and leave a sliver in your mouth behind your cheek, so as not to be afraid of any “kudes” (witchcraft) during the journey. A spell against fever was pronounced at the root of a rowan tree, and then, after tearing it out of the ground, it was placed on the bed near the sick person. At the beginning of the plot “for a hernia for a baby,” “two rowan trees, two curly ones” are described, they grow on a white stone in the middle of the sea-ocean, and between them hangs a golden cradle with a baby.

Among all the Slavs, there was a ban on cutting and breaking rowan, using it for firewood, picking flowers and even berries. Our ancestors considered the rowan tree to be a vengeful tree and believed that whoever breaks it or cuts it down will soon die himself or someone from his house will die. The rowan tree was not supposed to be cut down because the healers transferred the disease from a person to the rowan tree. And if you cut down this tree, the disease passed on to you... This is such a respectful attitude.

In magic, rowan was used to protect the house from magical attacks and evil spirits. To do this, rowan trees were planted near the porch or at the gate. A sprig of rowan with fruits has long been attached above the front door, where it protected both the house and its household from evil spirits. Rowan is a talisman "against dashing people and bad news. If you look closely at the underside of the rowan berry, you will notice that its shape is an equilateral five-pointed star, and this is one of the most ancient and most important pagan symbols - a symbol of protection.

In the Novgorod province, upon returning from the cemetery, they hung rowan rods over the door so that the deceased would not return home. In the Voronezh province, a matchmaker sprinkled rowan roots on the groom's boot so that he would not be damaged at the wedding.

There are signs associated with rowan: “A large harvest of rowan means a long and frosty winter.” “Rowan berries in the forest are productive in a rainy autumn, if not, in a dry autumn.”

Willow It was considered a sacred tree among the Slavs, a symbol of the continuity and constancy of life. It is the willow that symbolizes the ancient Slavic pagan god Yarila. To this day, the custom has been preserved once a year on the night of Ivan Kupala in honor of the sun god to decorate the willow with flowers and burn bonfires near it. At the end of the holiday, willow branches were planted in the courtyards.

In popular belief, it belongs to the trees cursed by God. According to legend, Christ’s tormentors made pins from it to hold the cross together. According to another legend, the nails with which Jesus was crucified were not iron, but made from willow. For this, the willow, according to popular belief, is subjected to sharpening by worms, and devils sit in the dry willow. According to the ideas of Belarusians, the devil sits on a willow, especially an old one - dry and hollow, from Epiphany to Palm Sunday. In the spring, the devils warm themselves on the willow tree, and after they are blessed on the holiday, they fall into the water, and therefore from Palm Sunday until Easter you cannot drink water drawn under the willow tree.

The willow in Rus' played the same role as the palm tree, the palm branches with which the people greeted Christ entering Jerusalem. The willow was and is consecrated in the temple with holy water.

The willow was credited with the magical power to influence the irrigation of fields and meadows (willow grows in damp places, near water), which means that, the ancestors believed, it contributed to fertility and future harvests. There is a clear connection here with pre-Christian rituals and beliefs, with the cult of the spirits of vegetation and fertility.

It was also believed that willow had the ability to impart health and sexual energy to livestock and people, protect against diseases and cleanse from evil spirits. In ancient times, there was a custom: parents returning from church would whip their children with blessed willow and say: “The willow is a whip!” It brings me to tears. The willow is red and does not strike in vain.” This was done with the aim of giving children health.

Young women and girls, as well as newlyweds, were beaten with the blessed willow, thereby wanting to make them childbearing.

In Rus', it was customary to keep the consecrated willow at home in the front corner behind the icons all year round. And on the holiday itself, they lash the livestock with willow branches and say: “As the willow grows, so do you grow” - in addition to wishing health to the pets, this was supposed to protect them from evil spirits. Branches of consecrated willow were strengthened in barns and stables. Before the first cattle drive into the field, these twigs were fed to the animals.

The willow was also credited with the power to protect houses from fires, fields from hail, stop a storm, recognize sorcerers and witches, discover treasures, etc.

Following the belief that the willow has universal healing power, our ancestors ate nine cones (earrings) from the consecrated willow, believing that this would protect them from fever. During a thunderstorm, the blessed willow was taken out from behind the shrine and placed on the windowsill - they believed that this would save them from being struck by lightning.

The preparation of willow branches in cities was a special ritual. On the eve of Palm Sunday in the old days, Russians, without distinction of classes and ranks (from the tsar to the commoner), went to break willow on the banks of nearby rivers. In Moscow, for example, to Kitay-gorod and to the banks of the Neglinka, overgrown with willows and willows. Foreigners who visited Moscow in the 16th - 17th centuries left interesting memories of how on Saturday, on the eve of Palm Sunday, before mass, from the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin, in front of a large crowd of people, they carried out a large tree (willow), decorated with various artificial fruits, and installed it in a huge sleigh and they were taken as if in a religious procession.

The Slavs believed that willow amulets hung around the neck protected against hellish visions. Willow branches were hung over the doors of residential buildings, because they promised goodness and happiness. Women stuck willow branches into their hair, which protected them from evil spirits, added sharpness to their eyesight, and protected them from blindness.

All Eastern Slavs widely believed that a consecrated branch could protect from thunderstorms, storms, other natural disasters, from evil spirits and diseases. In the Tambov province it was believed that a willow thrown against the wind could drive away a storm, and thrown into a fire could calm it.

In Rus', weeping white willow species were a symbol of melancholy and sadness. In the old days, the willow was called the sadness tree, which not only sympathizes with the pain and illness of a person, but also takes it all away from the patient. There is a belief that willow has magical properties: it protects people from evil spirits, troubles and accidents. If you carry branches of this tree with you, you can get rid of the fear of death.

In folk medicine of Slavic countries, willow was used as an anti-inflammatory and anti-fever remedy for malaria. In Kuban, willow was used in the treatment of childhood diseases. To do this, early in the morning, before sunrise, they went to the river and there they cut the willow three times, nine branches each. At the same time, they counted from nine to one three times. Arriving home, they dipped one bunch of nine branches into hot water and bathed the child near the window from which the sunrise could be seen. At noon, they put a second bunch of willow in hot water and bathed the child near the window, opposite which the sun stood at that moment. In the evening, when the sun was setting, the same actions were performed with the last bunch of branches in front of the window looking at the sunset. At the end, all the willow branches with water were taken to the river and poured out with prayer so that they would float on the water. It was believed that the disease would recede.

They fumigated sick cattle with willow, ground it into powder and covered wounds with it, made a decoction from it and drank it for various diseases, and also used it as a lotion for tumors and bruises. The blessed willow was fed to cows and sheep, and they said: “It’s not I who give, but the willow.” Just as the talnik does not dry, so you, my God-given cattle, do not dry out.”

Aspen- this plant, full of dignity and beauty, is considered in popular belief as a cursed tree; at the same time, it is widely used as a talisman.

There is a popular belief that demons live in aspen foliage. In Christianity, it is believed that Aspen is guilty of allowing the tormentors of Jesus Christ to make from its wood the cross on which he was crucified, the nails of the knitting needles with which he was nailed to the cross. The Mother of God or Christ himself cursed the aspen and punished it with eternal fear, from which it shakes to this day. According to another legend, the aspen did not show respect: at the moment of the birth of Christ and at his death, it did not calm down and did not bow down, but continued to rustle its leaves and tremble. That is why it trembles without reason, does not bear fruit and cannot cover a person with its shadow. According to other stories, the aspen was punished because by the trembling of its branches it betrayed the Virgin Mary, who was hiding under it with Christ, during the flight to Egypt. Finally, they say that Judas, tormented by fear and repentance, could not find a tree for a long time that would agree to “accept” him, and only Aspen took pity and allowed him to hang himself on it, for which he was immediately cursed by God.

It was forbidden to plant aspen near houses to avoid misfortune, including disease; it was not used in construction, the stove was not heated with it, they avoided sitting in the shade of a tree, they did not bring aspen branches into the house, etc.

In some places among the Eastern Slavs, aspen was also considered a “devil’s” tree, cf. The characteristic Hutsul name for the trait is “Osinavets”. In places where aspen grows, according to legend, devils “hover.” The presence of the devil on the aspen is evidenced by the prohibition to hide under the aspen during a thunderstorm, because “thunder seeks the aspen.” Thunder “strikes” the devil in Slavic beliefs.

According to Belarusian beliefs, witches prepared a harmful potion over a fire from aspen branches; in order to turn into a wolf or become invisible, the sorcerer had to somersault over five aspen pegs driven into the ground, or through an aspen stump; Throwing an aspen branch in front of the traveler, the sorcerer knocked him off the road. Wanting to make friends with the goblin, the man called on him, standing in the forest on fallen aspen trees.

Aspen was used for magical purposes and for fortune telling. To detect a thief, the Poles placed an object that the thief had touched into a split aspen; it was believed that this would make him shake with a fever, and the villain would hasten to return the stolen property. Aspen was used to identify a witch: it could be seen if, on the night before Ivan Kupala, one hid in a barn under a harrow specially made from aspen. To find out which of the women in the village was a witch, the Belarusians drove an aspen stake into the ground, cut chips from it, set them on fire and boiled a strainer (a cloth through which milk is strained) on the fire: it was believed that the witch would certainly come and ask not to burn her with fire.

In folklore, beliefs and rituals, aspen is an effective means in the fight against evil spirits, witches, sorcerers and chthonic creatures. After the death of sorcerers, they burned aspen wood on fire so that they would not harm people. In a Russian fairy tale, heroes defeat Baba Yaga by crushing her with aspen roots; Dobrynya Nikitich hangs the Serpent Gorynych, whom he defeated, on a “gag aspen” (the epic “Dobrynya and the Serpent”). According to Russian and Belarusian beliefs, dead snake You need to hang it on an aspen tree, otherwise it will come to life and bite a person. Conspiracies against snake bites are usually read over aspen bark, and then rubbed over the bitten area. A fire made from aspen wood is considered the most effective means of fighting evil spirits, hence the proverb: let it burn on an aspen tree!

Among the Eastern Slavs, as well as in Poland, an aspen stake was stuck into the grave of a “walking” dead person or vampire. This was often done during funerals so that the deceased would not turn into a “walking” dead man. The sharpened aspen stake received the meaning of Perun’s club in the eyes of the people. To protect cows and calves from attacks by witches, they place aspen trees, cut down or uprooted, on the gates and in the corners of the barnyard; during the cattle plague, to drive away the Cow Death, they beat it (that is, wave it through the air) with aspen logs.

In the rituals of the Eastern Slavs, aspen was used as a talisman. On Yuryevsk and Kupala nights, with the help of aspen branches stuck into the walls of the barn, into the gates, barns, they protected cattle from witches who took milk from cows. For the same purpose, when calving cows, a piece of aspen was attached to the horn; The first colostrum was filtered through an aspen pipe and given to the cow. If a cow's milk was sour, she was driven through aspen branches placed along the threshold; they forced a newly purchased horse to step over an aspen log placed at the gate of the yard, etc.

To protect fields from witches, aspen branches were stuck into the crops; in the same way they protected vegetable gardens from moles, caterpillars, etc. The healer, destroying a plant in a field, tore it out of the ground with aspen sticks and burned it on an aspen fire.

When building a house, aspen pegs were stuck in the corner of the foundation, protecting the house from any harm. Protecting himself from the devil, a man caught in the forest at night went to bed in a circle drawn on the ground with an aspen stick.

As a saving weapon against demonic obsession, aspen can also serve as a healing agent for exorcising evil spirits and diseases. They read the spell over aspen rods, which are then placed on the patient. When your teeth hurt, they take an aspen branch and read the spell over it three times: “On the sea on Okiyan, on the island on Buyan there are three tall trees, under those trees lies a hare; Move, toothache, to that hare!” After that, an aspen knot is applied to the diseased teeth.

In folk medicine, various diseases were “transferred” to aspen: in case of fever, the cut hair and nails of the patient were put into a hole drilled in an aspen tree, and the hole was hammered with an aspen peg, believing that this would prevent the fever from coming out. Sometimes the patient’s belongings were buried in a hole under an aspen tree or the patient was seated on a fresh aspen stump, believing that the disease would leave the person and enter him. “Transmitting” the disease to the tree, they asked: “Aspen, aspen, take my quagmire, give me relief!”

In some cases, in exchange for health, a person made a promise not to harm the aspen - not to break its branches, not to chop it, not to burn it. Once he outgrows this place, he will recover. For childhood insomnia, a font was made from aspen for the child or aspen was placed in his cradle. Aspen was also used to treat toothache, hernia, childhood fear and other diseases. When a cholera epidemic approached, felled aspen trees were stuck into the ground at the four ends of the village, thereby protecting the village from the spread of the disease.

Healers advised those suffering from paralysis to lie down and rest their feet on an aspen log. The patient recovers if the spell is read over aspen rods and placed on his chest.

Everyone knows that the best way to fight werewolves and vampires is an aspen stake. Aspen absorbs and diverts negative energy from the other world. It was this property that was considered magical in earlier times. In the aspen grove, psychics and magicians lose their abilities. Here you can find refuge from magical persecution, protect yourself from an energy vampire, and partially neutralize the consequences of damage or the evil eye.

Hawthorn. Among the Slavs, hawthorn is a noblewoman, hawthorn and a symbol of chastity.

The ritual functions of hawthorn are due to its thorniness, which makes this shrub similar to blackberries, rosehips, and blackthorns. In some nationalities, hawthorn is called thorn. Hawthorn was one of several plants intended to make a wreath for Christ.

The association between its spring bloom and virginity has led to the popular belief that it protects chastity. Hawthorn flowers were used for wedding wreaths. However, the smell of hawthorn flowers could foretell death.

With the help of hawthorn, you can prevent a dead person from becoming a vampire. To do this, the belly or heel of the deceased was pierced with a hawthorn thorn, and for good measure, a hawthorn bush was also planted on the grave, and for good measure, a hawthorn bush was also planted on the grave. Branches of the plant were placed in the chimney if it was suspected that a vampire was entering the house through it. It is believed that you can drive away the devil with a stick made from this thorny plant, and you can kill it with a knife, the handle of which is made of hawthorn. Hawthorn was placed on the threshold of a cow pen to prevent witches from entering.

There is a belief that demons live in thorny bushes, and hawthorn is a pitchfork tree.

Among the southern Slavs, an earthquake is also explained by the shaking or damage of a tree on whose branches the Earth is located, or a pillar on which it is supported. In eastern Serbia they say that the entire earth is located on the branches of a huge hawthorn to which a large black dog is tied. This dog constantly gnaws the hawthorn, and when there is very little left, he begins to try with all his might to break it. This makes the Earth shake, but does not collapse, because as soon as the trunk cracks, like St. Peter baptizes the tree with the rod and the hawthorn becomes whole again.

From the evil eye and damage, its branches were placed under the pillow, and at the same time protected from diseases.

Elder.

In popular belief, elderberry is one of the so-called cursed, dangerous plants, since the devil lives in it. In Ukraine, for example, they believe that the devil “planted” the elderberry tree and now constantly sits under it. In the apocryphal traditions of Christianity, the elderberry challenges the aspen for the dubious honor of being the very tree on which Judas Iscariot hanged himself.

According to another legend, the devil hanged himself on an elderberry tree, causing its leaves and berries to make noise. cadaverous smell. The Polish legend says this. that the first demon settled in a huge hole and planted an elderberry on top so that it would protect him. The Serbs considered the elderberry bush to be the habitat of the pitchfork.

Perhaps this is why elderberry was not used in family and calendar rituals, but was widely used in magic, amulets, and healing.

At the same time, it was believed that the elderberry was the abode of household spirits, bringing good to the owners, guardians of the household, etc. In Polish and Ukrainian conspiracies, elderberry is identified with Adam; they address her with the words “Elderberry Adam,” “Man of God, Holy Adam,” explaining that both the elderberry and Adam have existed since the foundation of the world.

It was forbidden to burn elderberry to avoid toothache. Children's toys were never made from it, so that children would not have headaches. Among the Poles, Hutsuls, and Lusatian Serbs, it was forbidden to sleep under the elderberry tree, urinate under it, or climb on the elderberry tree. Elderberry was not used as fuel, so as not to bring bedbugs and fleas into the house.

There was a ban on uprooting elderberries (if it was necessary to uproot them, cripples or mentally ill people were specially hired for this work).

Violation of this prohibition, according to popular belief, could lead to misfortune or illness, for example, rheumatism (“if you chop an elderberry, it will twist your legs and arms”). It was believed that where the elderberry bush was dug up, nothing would ever grow.

These taboos were lifted if the elderberry was chopped or broken for any specific purpose: as medicine, for decorating a church or making fences, for fuel. It was possible to break elderberries on a certain day (on Holy Thursday, before noon).

Elderberry was used to magically treat illnesses. They poured water under the elderberry tree, in which they bathed a sick child, in the hope that the disease would take away the spirit living under the bush. They tied the elderberry with threads from the clothes of a person with a fever. Elderberry was used for incantations that were read under the plant when treating toothache: “Holy elderberry, I keep you from being burned by fire, and you keep me from toothache.” To protect a child from headaches, the Slovenians buried his cut hair under an elderberry tree, and the Slovaks bathed young children in a decoction of elderflower flowers to ensure their health.

And those with radiculitis knelt before the elderberry and asked her to take over their illness: “Elderberry! Dazhbog sent me to you so that you could take upon yourself my illness!”

Among the southern Slavs, elderberry was widely used for bites from snakes, scorpions and wasps, and was also used in folk veterinary medicine.

Among the Czechs and Slovenes, girls turned to elderberry during fortune telling about marriage. On Christmastide, the girl went to the elderberry bush, shook it and said: “I’m shaking, I’m shaking the elderberry, respond, dog, from the other side where my dear lives,” and listened to where the dogs barked. It was believed that during fortune telling one could see one's betrothed in an elderberry bush.

In Ukraine, conspiracies addressed to the elderberry are widely known: “from misfortune”, “so that the court does not sue”, “to gain strength and courage”, “to get rid of any trouble”.

Elderberry branches were used as a universal amulet. They were used to decorate houses, outbuildings, and fences to protect against witches on the nights of St. Yuryev and Kupala, and were simply carried with them. In the Balkans, elderberry branches (along with other plants) were used in rainmaking rituals. They decorated the dodola, peperuda, and Herman's doll from head to toe, and at the end of the ceremony, they threw the branches into the water.

In Russia there was a belief that if you set off on a journey with an elder staff, you would not be afraid of either evil people or wild animals. The method of making a talisman cane can be found in ancient Russian herbalists. At the sight of such a cane, evil spirits run away as fast as they can.

Spruce. According to legend, the spruce sheltered the Virgin Mary during her flight with Christ to Egypt. According to another legend, she sheltered Christ, who was hiding from the plague, for which she received a blessing and was rewarded by remaining green forever.

The prickliness of spruce, as well as the strong resinous smell, determine its use as a talisman. In Ukraine, spruce branches (together with rosehip branches and nettles) were stuck on the eve of Kupala night in front of the gate, barn, in the eaves of the roof and other places to protect cattle from witches, pigs from diseases. At the first milk yield, the Poles filtered the milk through spruce branches placed crosswise so that it would not spoil. Spruce branches were widely used to protect buildings and cultural spaces from bad weather. In Moravia, they decorated crosses with them, which were stuck into crops against hail at Easter. However, fir branches consecrated at Christmas, Epiphany, Candlemas, Easter or on the Nativity of John the Baptist were considered a more effective remedy. In Belarus, consecrated spruce branches along with incense were placed at the four corners of the house to protect it from thunder. The branches that were stuck into the ice on the sides of the hole for Epiphany were brought home, placed behind the icons and stuck into the roof - from wind and thunder; tied to apple trees in the garden to protect the trees from storms; they stuck it into the wall, put it under the house, in the underground - “so that the storm wouldn’t touch it.”

Spruce is a female tree. Probably, it is precisely with the “female” symbolism of the spruce that the ban on planting and generally having a spruce near the house is associated, which supposedly “survives” from the men’s house. According to Serbian beliefs, if a spruce tree grows near a house, no boys will be born there. In the Russian North, they did not plant a spruce near the house, fearing that otherwise “the men will not live, they will die, there will be only widows.”

The ban on planting spruce near the house can be explained by the fact that spruce belongs to non-fruit trees (according to the Bulgarian legend, the spruce is “barren” because it was cursed by the Mother of God). In Belarus, spruce was not planted for fear that “nothing would be done in the house”, “nothing would be born either in the barn or at home.” They especially avoided keeping a spruce tree near the houses of newlyweds, so that they would not remain childless, “so that the family would not be uprooted.”

In the beliefs of the Eastern Slavs, spruce is also related to the field of folk demonology. According to the Vladimir tale, the brownie lives in a large pine or spruce branch suspended somewhere in the yard. The children of the forest spirits lie in cradles hanging on spruce and pine trees, and the children of mermaids lie under the spruce. The devils lead the cursed children and the children they dragged into the forest through the fir trees; the goblin puts lost children to sleep under the fir tree.

According to legend, on behalf of the sorcerers, the cursed children abandoned to them, as well as the devils who demand work from the sorcerers, are counting needles. There is a conspiracy against childhood insomnia: “Go, dawn, into the forest, sit on the Christmas tree, count your needles. There's business for you, there's work for you. Don’t hurt my dear child.”

According to Slavic beliefs, the devil hides under a spruce tree during a thunderstorm, bringing thunder and lightning upon himself. This explains the ban on being under a spruce tree during a thunderstorm.

Spruce has found wide use in funeral and memorial rituals. Among the Old Believer runners, it was customary to dig up the roots of a large spruce tree right in the forest, turn it out of the ground a little and place the body of the deceased without a coffin in the resulting hole, and then plant the spruce in its original place, “as if nothing had happened here for centuries.” This is consistent with the Olonets testimony about the funeral of the gallows between two spruce trees, as well as the motif of a funeral under a spruce tree in Serbian epic songs.

A coffin was often made from spruce (as well as pine and birch), in the hope that it would not allow the deceased to “walk” after death. This is even reflected in Russian carol curses addressed to the owner who gave bad gifts to the carolers: “If you don’t give it, for the New Year you will have a spruce coffin, an aspen lid.”

Everywhere there was a custom of throwing fir branches on the road to the cemetery, both before and after the funeral procession. In this way they “covered” or “swept out” the path for the deceased so that “he would not come and disturb.”

Among the Western Slavs, spruce branches were used as an evergreen plant; garlands from it and spruce wreaths are one of the most common grave decorations. A felled spruce (as well as cypress and juniper pine), often decorated with flowers or ribbons, could be installed or, less often, planted on the grave of a guy or girl who died before marriage.

The spruce also served as a ritual tree, mainly in the Christmas and New Year, Maslenitsa, Trinity and Kupala festivals, as well as at weddings.

Spruce was considered a symbol of eternal life and unfading. This is where the custom began at Christmas (later on New Year) of decorating the house with this tree.

There is a sign: “You can’t cut down a century-old spruce - it will lead to trouble.” - People believe that an old, centuries-old spruce tree is the home of a devil. If you cut it down, the goblin will begin to take revenge in all ways available to him, including arson. And he will certainly lead him off the road in the forest, where he is the master.

Kalina Since ancient times, among the Slavic peoples it has been a symbol of youth, girlhood, fun and revelry. In folk legends, this is a woman, her fate, her share. It blooms with a delicate white color, shining with the purity of innocence. But then comes marriage. Joy comes in half with grief. When a flower quickly fades, feelings quickly fade. A berry is born - either bitter or sweet. In the rain and wind, fragile viburnum branches break.

Viburnum guai have long been called sacred. It was forbidden to graze cows or cut down bushes near them. According to legend, if you rock a baby in a viburnum cradle, he will grow up to be melodious. The red color of the viburnum has enormous amulet power, which is why the bride’s outfit used to always be red.

In the old days, viburnum was always present in the wedding ceremony. It is the main decoration of the bride's wreath, wedding tree, wedding loaf and other wedding attributes. The bride's wreaths were woven from viburnum, periwinkle and other fragrant herbs - this ensured the love of the newlyweds for many years.

Viburnum is also a symbol of procreation; there is even an expression: “Viburnum gave birth to the family.”

In Ukraine, when a girl was born into a family, berries and viburnum leaves were placed in the first font so that she would be beautiful, rosy, happy and healthy. Kalina was hung next to the woman in labor so that she and her child would be healthy and happy.

At the same time, viburnum is a tree and a funeral, memorable one - “you, my sisters, will plant a viburnum in my head.”

In the songs, murdered, sworn people, lovers who died of love turn into viburnum.

Viburnum with drooping branches symbolizes the girl’s sadness. Breaking viburnum branches - Symbolized getting a girl married. Collecting viburnum, walking through viburnum - looking for love or loving. In Ukraine, viburnum is credited with special powers: the viburnum color, picked and applied fresh to a loving heart, consoles longing.

Of the entire chain of images associated with viburnum, only the “viburnum bridge” was associated with daring and youth. Walking along the Kalinov Bridge meant indulging in selfless fun and revelry. In one song, a melancholy girl asks the fellows to “build her a viburnum bridge,” that is, to cheer her up, and a woman, striving to regain her youth, catches up with them on the Kalinov bridge with the words: “Oh, I caught up with my years on the Kalinov bridge; oh, come back, come back for a visit at least for an hour!”

Kalina is planted on the grave of a son, brother, young Cossack, and generally unmarried people.

Maple .

In the legends of the Western and Eastern Slavs, maple is a tree into which a person has been turned (“sworn”). It is for this reason that maple wood could not be used for firewood (“maple came from man”). It was impossible to make a coffin from its trunk (“it is a sin for a living person to rot in the ground”). It was forbidden to place maple leaves under bread in the oven (a palm with five fingers was seen in a maple leaf).

The transformation of a person into a maple tree is one of the popular motifs of Slavic legends: a mother “cursed” a disobedient son (daughter), and musicians walking through the grove where this tree grew made a violin out of it, which in the voice of the son (daughter) talks about the mother’s guilt.

In songs about a mother or a poisoner's wife, sycamore (white maple) grows on the grave of her murdered son (husband).

And in the South Slavic tradition, where such songs are unknown, the maple, nevertheless, is also thought of as involved in human destiny. According to Serbian beliefs, if a dry maple tree is hugged by an unjustly convicted person, the maple will turn green, but if an unhappy or offended person touches a maple tree that is turning green in the spring, the tree will dry up.

According to an ancient tradition, when a house was built, a couple of maples were planted on its southern side. Since a house was usually built when a new family was created, these trees received the names “Groom” and “Bride”. But, probably, in former times these two maples, under the protection of which the house was all year round, were called god and goddess trees.

The maple symbolized the ability to magically protect, love and material well-being.

Maple was used in the construction of bridges over running water. Running water is an obstacle to dark forces, and the maple did not allow these forces to use the bridge.

Maple branches covering the barn or stuck into the walls protect livestock from the evil eye and damage.

The maple was called the good tree, believing that it was the seat of deities or demons.

It was believed that the maple tree brings happiness and protects against lightning, so it was planted near the house.

In Rus', in order to prevent a witch from entering the yard and house, maple branches were stuck in the doors. To scare away evil forces, maple fruits were buried under the threshold of the house, and a green branch was hung over the bed.

Maple leaves were often depicted on Easter eggs.

The maple arrow is believed to kill the undead.

In agricultural magic, maple branches were used to grow flax. They were stuck into the arable land, saying: “Lord, give us flax, like a maple tree.”

There is a belief that there is a very strong connection between a person and the maple tree that grows next to his house. And as long as a person is alive and well, the maple tree grows and turns green.

Maple is a melodious tree. “Stretch a ringing string on a dry branch of a wedge tree, sing me your daring song...” is a frequent motif of ancient legends. Sadko's harp was made from maple.

Maple branches were used in the rites of the Trinity, Green Christmastide, and Midsummer. In Polesie, the Saturday before Trinity was called “maple”, “maple Saturday”. On the holiday, one or three trees were placed at the doors and windows, and the house was decorated with branches. It was believed that at this time the souls of deceased relatives come to the house and hide in maple branches.

After the holidays, trees and branches were not thrown away; they were burned or chopped for firewood.

There are signs associated with maple: “If the maple leaves curl up and expose their lower surface to the wind, it means it will rain.” “The maple sap has started flowing - the spring frosts are over.”

For women, it symbolizes a young man, slender and strong, kind and loved.

In Ukraine, maple and linden were represented as a married couple, and the fall of maple leaves promised separation from family

Linden The name of this tree in all Slavic languages ​​comes from the word “stick” (due to the viscous sap). Linden was attributed to softness, which made it a symbol of femininity, tenderness, the opposite of the “male” tree - oak. The Slavs read the linden tree not just as a symbol of a woman, but as the “mother of trees,” the giver of life ( similar attitude associated with the role of linden in a person’s material well-being). Just as the oak was dedicated to Perun, so the linden was the tree of the goddess Lada.

In Russian folk art, the beautiful linden tree is connected by love with both oak and maple.

Linden was closely associated with the Orthodox cult and Christian legends. It was she who was considered the tree of the Virgin Mary; they said that the Mother of God rested on it, descending from heaven to earth. Icons and icons were hung on the linden tree; on the linden tree, according to legend, miraculous icons appeared (“appeared”) more often than other trees. According to legends, the linden tree covered the Virgin Mary and little Christ with its branches during their flight to Egypt. Linden is a tree revered as sacred in all Slavic traditions. Among the southern Slavs, old large linden trees traditionally grew near churches and temples, especially ancient ones; Courts were held under these linden trees, holidays and meetings of residents were held. Religious processions through the fields stopped under the linden trees; meals were held here, etc.

The linden tree was also considered a lucky tree, which people were not afraid to keep near houses and plant on graves. They also said that it was good to sleep under a linden tree. The sacred nature of the tree led to the use of linden wood to carve a “living” fire, with the help of which the fire in household hearths was renewed annually.

In this regard, it was natural to prohibit touching the revered linden trees, damaging them, chopping them, breaking branches, defecating under them, etc. It was known that if a person plucks a linden branch, his horse will certainly fall, but if the person returns the branch to its place, the horse will recover. The Poles were also wary of cutting down linden trees, believing that otherwise either the person who cut down the tree or someone from his family would die.

Ukrainians say about the linden tree that God gave it a special power - to save husbands from curses with which their wives “reward” them. The linden tree takes everything upon itself, which is why its trunk is covered in growths. And one more thing: you can’t hit cattle with a linden tree - they’ll die.

Use linden as a universal amulet. It was widely believed that the linden tree was not struck by lightning, so they planted it near houses and were not afraid to hide under it during a thunderstorm. The Russians hung linden crosses on the neck of a person tormented by obsessions. While grazing cattle, they stuck a linden branch in the middle of the pasture so that the cows would not wander far and could not be touched by animals in the forest. Everywhere in Russia it was believed that a witch could be discouraged from becoming a werewolf if she was hit backhand with a naked linden stick. Brave people also drove away the devil who became attached to them. During weddings, residents of Herzegovina held a linden branch over the heads of the newlyweds as a talisman. It was used to decorate houses and corrals with livestock on St. George’s Day and Trinity Day.

Like many other trees, linden played an important role in folk medicine: various diseases were transferred to it everywhere, driving pieces of the patient’s clothing, nails and hair into the tree trunk; they fumigated sick people and livestock with smoke from burnt linden wood, etc.

Alder- a tree mentioned in the legends of Western and Eastern Slavs. They tell how the devil, competing with God at the creation of the world, tried to create a wolf, but could not revive it; By the will of God, the wolf came to life and rushed at the devil, who was hiding from him on an alder tree. Then the blood from the devil’s heel, bitten by the wolf, fell on the alder tree, causing its bark to turn red. According to another legend, God created a sheep, in response to which the devil created a goat and, wanting to show off to God, dragged it to God by the tail. On the way, the goat escaped from the devil and hid on an alder tree. Since then, the goats have no tail, and the alder bark has turned red from the goat’s blood.

It is also mentioned in the legends about the crucifixion of Christ: alder branches were broken during the scourging of Christ, for which Christ blessed this tree.

Among the Southern Slavs, Alder is used in folk medicine; “living fire” is carved from it.

In the Russian North, it was customary to leave a sacrifice to the field or forest spirits on an alder tree - usually in the form of bread and salt.

Because of its red color, alder has become a magical talisman. Like anything bright, red bark attracts the eye and, accordingly, protects against the evil eye.

Even if the bark is hidden in a pocket, the person is reliably protected. Hence the popular tradition of putting pieces of alder in newlyweds’ pockets to protect the newlyweds from damage. Its branches are stuck along the edges of the field for protection from hail and bad weather; They bathe in the water that washes the alder roots to protect themselves from diseases.

When you have a fever, you need to go into the forest and sit on a freshly cut Alder stump, and then the fever will spread to the tree. The Poles believed that the water washing the roots of Alder turns black; if you swim in such water, the body will turn black, but at the same time the person will be saved from all diseases.

In Poland, on Trinity Sunday they decorated houses with Alder branches to ward off thunderstorms and hail. The Poles stuck Alder branches into barley crops to prevent moles from tearing up the soil, and also placed Alder branches under sheaves to protect them from mice. Belarusians believed that Alder could protect households from visits from the “walking dead man,” since it bears “the red blood of Satan.” For the same reasons, in Polesie people planted Alder near houses so that “the devil would not get attached” to a person. The Slovaks placed a piece of alder leaf in the shoes of the newlyweds going to the wedding ceremony.

Hazel The Western and Southern Slavs have a sacred tree. Hazel belonged to the “blessed” trees, which “are not struck by thunder”: during a thunderstorm, they hid under its branches. They decorated houses with crosses made of hazel, stuck them into fields and outbuildings, especially on St. George’s Day, on Ivan Kypaly; it was believed that the thunderstorm would bypass places protected by hazel. At the same time, it was believed that thunder and lightning, which have no power over the tree itself, have a detrimental effect on its fruits. The nuts spoil, turning black, as if burning from the inside. Due to its status, hazel was widely used as a guard against evil spirits. Demons. The Bulgarians drove out those who inflicted insomnia on children by walking around the child’s cradle with a lit walnut branch. They used hazel branches to protect themselves from mermaids. Hazelnut was an effective amulet against snakes and mice. The Bulgarians believed that snakes were not only afraid of hazel, but also died from it. Czechs and Slovaks put hazelnut branches in barns, beat them on the walls of houses and storerooms, thus driving out mice from there.

The Southern Slavs did not plant hazel trees, believing that when its trunk reached the neck of the person who planted it, it would die.

During Christmas fortune-telling, Slovenians, summoning evil spirits to crossroads, outlined a magical circle around themselves with the help of a hazel branch.. In Bulgaria, Macedonia and eastern Serbia, the hazelnut and its branches were considered the habitat of the souls of ancestors who visited the earth during the Trinity period. Therefore, on the eve of Trinity, people avoided picking hazel branches, fearing to disturb the souls of the dead. On Ascension or on Spiritual Day, they decorated houses with hazelnut branches, laid them on the floor in the house and in the church, knelt down on them, prayed and, pressing their ears to the hazel branches, listened to them. It was believed that in this way one could hear the dead and even speak to them. At the end of the day, these walnut branches were taken to the cemetery and swept over the graves with them, so that in the “other world” the soul of the deceased could take refuge in their shadow.

Christmas fortune-telling speaks about the connection between hazelnuts and the cult of ancestors. It was believed that an empty nut foreshadows death and a hungry, lean year, while a full one portends prosperity and health.

The rosehip protected the newlyweds from the action of harmful forces. In Croatia, three rose hips were stuck into the groom's hat to protect him from the evil eye; After the wedding, the bride's veil was thrown onto a rosehip tree, to which she bowed nine times.

In Serbia, to protect a child from a witch, a rose hip was sewn into his clothes and placed next to him; In Bulgaria, it was forbidden to dry a newborn’s diapers on a rose hip, so that the samodivas living under it would not harm him.

In Croatia, rose hips were kept in the house to prevent the plague from entering it. To prevent the witch from taking the milk from the cows, on St. George’s Day they decorated the doors of the house with rosehip branches, stuck them in front of the entrance to the house and into the barn. Rose hips protected both people and livestock from snake bites; for example, the Poles fumigated cattle and shepherds with smoke from rose hips before driving them out to pasture.

It was believed that rose hips provided fruitful power, so rose hips were often paired with fruit trees in rituals. In Poland and Slovakia, as many rose hips were baked into Christmas bread as the number of heads of cattle the owner had: it was believed that the animals would not get sick, and the cows would give more milk. In the Czech Republic, cattle were fed rose hips at Easter.

The Kuban Cossacks have a legend that rose hips grew from the blood of a girl who, not wanting to marry someone she didn’t love, stabbed herself with a dagger. In the fall, this bush was dressed in an outfit of red berries, but only a kind person could pick them. If an evil person approached him, the bush bristled with thorns and did not allow him to pick a single berry.

In folk medicine: diseases were referred to it, water after treatment was poured under a rose hip bush. At the same time, the rosehip could give health, for which an exchange was made between the patient and the rosehip bush: the patient took the red thread that hung on the rosehip during the night, and entangled the bush with a yellow thread that hung around his neck for a day and said: “I’ll give you a yellow thread.” , and you give me a red thread.” The disease passed on to the rosehip, and the life-giving power of the rosehip to the patient. In Bulgaria, a patient with epilepsy was measured with a rosehip rod, which was buried in the place where the seizure occurred. In gratitude, the healer hung a red thread with coins strung on a rose hip and left a cake, wine, oats and three horseshoes under the bush. In Serbia, a sick person, in order to get rid of an illness, climbed through a split rosehip twig, which was then tied with a red thread.

Rejuvenating apples, according to Russian legends, had great power: they could not only impart health and youth, but also restore life to the deceased. They grew up in a distant country, and were guarded by evil giants or dragons. In Slavic mythology, all approaches to the Irian Garden, Alatyr Mountain and the apple tree with golden apples are guarded by griffins and basilisks. Whoever tries these golden apples will receive eternal youth and power over the Universe. And the apple tree itself with golden apples is guarded by griffins and the dragon Ladon himself.

It has been known since ancient times that the apple tree is a tree of feminine power. The fruits of the apple tree have long been used as a love spell.

Apples and apple tree branches play an important role in Slavic wedding ceremonies. The apple acted as a love sign: a guy and a girl, having exchanged fruits, expressed mutual sympathy and publicly declared their love. An apple accepted by a girl during matchmaking is a sign of consent to marriage. The Southern Slavs invite people to a wedding by delivering apples to their homes.

An apple branch is used to make a wedding banner and tree; apples are placed in the bride's wreath. Belarusians, Poles and Ukrainians stick branches of an apple tree into a loaf, and Russians stick them into a baked wedding chicken. Among the southern Slavs, when going to a wedding, the bride took an apple with her; in the church after the wedding she threw an apple behind the altar in order to have children.

Apples were given to newlyweds so that they would have many children; On the first wedding night, one apple was placed under the feather bed, and the second was broken in half, and each of the newlyweds ate half. The apple is a symbol of the bride’s chastity: it was placed on the wedding shirt or instead of it in a sieve. Under the apple tree, the Southern Slavs performed the ritual shaving of the groom before the wedding; When changing the bride's headdress to the headdress of a married woman, the veil from her head was removed with an apple branch and thrown onto the apple tree.

Among the southern Slavs, on Christmas and New Year, the youngest member of the family brought a branch of an apple tree into the house, it was stuck into a Christmas roll; They hit all household members and livestock with an apple tree rod, and then threw them onto the apple tree.

The apple is the embodiment of fertility: it was placed in the seed grain so that the wheat would grow large, like apples, and to protect the crops from being robbed.

The last Apple was not plucked from the tree: it was left on the branch so that there would be a harvest next year.

In Slovakia, a young housewife, upon arriving at a new house, would turn over a basket full of apples so that there would be abundance in the household.

An apple that appeared after the secondary flowering of an apple tree, or the first one on a young tree, or hanging on an apple tree for a long time, helped against infertility.

Apple is associated with world of the dead and plays a significant role in funeral rites: it was placed in a coffin, in a grave, so that the deceased would take it to the “other world” to his ancestors. In Bulgarian beliefs, Archangel Michael accepted a soul into heaven only with an apple. The apple on the table on Christmas Eve was intended for the dead, so in Poland, fearing the revenge of their ancestors, it was forbidden to take apples from the Christmas tree.

The apple tree acts as a mediator between two worlds, as a connecting link in connecting the soul to the world of ancestors. In Serbia and Bulgaria, a small apple tree was carried in front of the coffin and planted on the grave (instead of a cross) so that the dead could communicate with the living through it. It was believed that the tree was with the deceased on the way until his transition to the “other world.” When the apple tree withered, it meant that the soul had reached heaven.

It was believed that before the Apple Savior, i.e. Before the blessing of apples, mermaids live on the apple tree, damn. Apples were blessed in the church on the Transfiguration (Apple Savior) and only after that they were allowed to be eaten.

In addition, apples are used to remove warts using magical rather than medical methods. An apple cut horizontally in half reveals a five-pointed star, and the wood and flowers of the apple tree are used in love witchcraft.

At the same time, the pear was treated as a habitat of evil spirits: in Macedonia, the wild pear is included in a number of trees called “Samovil”; it was forbidden to sleep under it, sit, tie a cradle to it, etc. In Polesie people were afraid to stand under a pear tree during a thunderstorm. According to Serbian beliefs, on Grusha (growing in a field, with a dense crown, crooked), veshtits and challs lived, witches gathered at night, strigas danced; during the ritual expulsion from the village of Chumy, a sacrifice was left for her on an old pear tree. Under the pear tree lived a snake that sucked milk from a cow every evening. The treasure was buried under a pear tree or a pear tree was planted in the place of the buried treasure. In many Slavic zones, a dry pear, like a willow, was considered the habitat of the devil, so old trees were not cut down for fear of incurring a loss on the farm.

In the Ukrainian charm tradition, the pear is correlated with the world tree (oak) and is the tree of the antiworld, the tree of evil and infertility, and is opposed to the apple tree.

Branches, fruits, wood, and pear ash served as a talisman and were used in productive magic. The Bulgarians made the pole of the wedding banner from a pear branch, the Ukrainians stuck a pear branch into the wedding loaf. When the bride was on her way to the wedding, dried pears were scattered at all crossroads; in Polesie, the mother showered the groom with pears so that he would be rich; in Plovdiv it was believed that the barren young woman had to eat the pear that hung on the tree the longest. To keep the newborn healthy, pear branches were placed in the first font and water was poured after bathing under the pear. The first fruits were blessed and distributed to neighbors as a memorial service.

In calendar rituals, branches and pear trees were more often used. In southwestern Bulgaria and Macedonia, a pear tree was cut down for the badnyak, sometimes a wild one, because of its abundant fruiting, so that the house would be fruitful and rich. The fireman stirred the fire in the hearth with a pear branch, pronouncing good wishes; the owner took it to the chicken coop so that the chickens would lay eggs well.

In Serbia, they treated warts and abscesses by rubbing them with a pear fruit, after which they threw them on the road with the words: “Whoever takes me, whoever bites me, will have illness, and health will be mine.” The disease was “hammered” into the pear into a hole drilled in the trunk; in northern Bulgaria, childless people were treated under a pear tree whose shadow did not fall on other trees. To ensure their health for the whole year, on Midsummer's Day they climbed through a wreath twisted on a pear branch.

The Slavs treated fruit trees with special trepidation, because in folk tradition they were the focus of fruit-bearing power.

The fruit tree often acts as a mythological double of man. In ancient Slavic traditions, there is a known custom of planting a fruit tree at the birth of a child, so that he grows and develops like a tree, and the tree, in turn, will bring a rich harvest of fruit. In case of illness of a child, this tree was used to guess his fate: if the tree began to dry out, the child could die and vice versa.

An uprooted apple tree in the garden foreshadowed the death of the owner or mistress. In Polesie, after the death of the owner, it was customary to cut down a pear or apple tree.

Almost everywhere, the fruit tree was associated with the feminine principle. This is even evidenced by the fact that in Slavic languages ​​all fruit trees are feminine in the grammatical gender of their names.

According to legends, in order to get rid of infertility, a woman had to eat the first buds, flowers or fruits from a fruit tree, and also crawl under the branches bent to the ground, saying at the same time: “Just as you are not infertile in your family, so I will not be.” barren in its

A pregnant woman was forbidden to climb trees, pick fruits, or even touch a fruit tree, otherwise the tree, according to legend, could dry out.

Water was poured under the fruit tree in which the woman in labor washed herself; it was she who they tried to treat with the first fruits of the new harvest.

All Slavs know the ban on cutting down fruit trees. Cutting them down was considered a sin. Violation of this rule could cause death, injury, or drought.

Fruit trees were practically not used in healing magic; in particular, diseases and “lessons” were not “transferred” to them.

The wood of fruit trees was widely used for making amulets.

In general, we can say that all fruit trees have a positive effect on humans.

Information about the magical properties of trees was preserved in the minds of the Slavs only in echoes. They can be found in fairy tales, epics, and warnings. Sometimes you can hear: “Don’t hide under a tree during a thunderstorm!”, “Don’t dry your laundry on the branches of a tree!”, “Don’t break the tree!”. The warnings are still alive in our memory, but no one or almost no one knows why one should not do this or that. Under the influence of Christianity, some ideas about the magical properties of plants and the reasons for these properties have changed, and some have been lost. Therefore, in this chapter I pursued the goal of collecting information about the magical properties of trees in the life of the ancient Slavs, and tracing the role they played in the life of our ancestors

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And most importantly, teenagers will gain experience of independent social action.

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Goal: promoting the reading of fiction through new forms of work and increasing the interest of children and adolescents in visiting the library in the summer.

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Goal: developing in children the need for books, reading, spiritual and intellectual growth, self-education

promoting reading fiction through new forms of work and increasing the interest of children and teenagers

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Goal: to promote creative self-realization of students, popularize reading

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Goal: increasing reading and creative activity, involving students in outreach activities, promoting the formation of competent reader skills

promoting reading fiction through new forms of work and increasing the interest of children and teenagers

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An early sensitive marker of subclinical elevation of blood pressure in children and adolescents is endothelial function. With endothelial dysfunction, the balance of key vasoactive factors: NO, endothelin-1 and serotonin is disrupted. In immature spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR line), compared with Wistar-Kyoto rats, the concentration in the blood plasma of NO is increased by 14.7%, endothelin-1 - by 2.9 times, serotonin in the blood plasma and in platelets - by 2.7 and 2.3 times, respectively. . The number of platelets in the blood of SHR rats was 50% higher than that of Wistar-Kyoto rats

Juvenile arterial hypertension (AH) has become “younger” and is currently observed in 2.4�18% of children and adolescents<...>Kazan, Republic of Tatarstan, Russian Federation An early sensitive marker of subclinical elevation of blood pressure in children and adolescents

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Goal: developing interest in printed sources of information, developing students’ creativity and communication skills

topics “Encyclopedias, dictionaries, reference books”, “Popular scientific literature”, “Periodicals for teenagers”

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No. 10 [School library: today and tomorrow, 2016]

Information and methodological magazine for school and children's libraries, collection methodologists. Timely and up-to-date information - in every school library! Thematic issues, special issues, methodological collections of materials on the most pressing issues in the development of the school library community, scripts, articles to help improve professional skills. Current documents, new things in the profession, teacher-librarian, school library as a center of local history, social partnership, IT school, best foreign experience, reviews of resources, blogs, periodicals, historical materials, innovations, projects and developments of practitioners, essays about the profession, history success, reading topic: modern and historical aspects. The magazine's materials are interactive in nature: they are provided with links to Internet resources on the topic, blogs, a mini-dictionary of terms, and expert opinion.

promoting reading fiction through new forms of work and increasing the interest of children and teenagers<...>topics “Encyclopedias, dictionaries, reference books”, “Popular scientific literature”, “Periodicals for teenagers”<...>And most importantly, teenagers will gain experience of independent social action.

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The novel is alive, and even too alive. Conversations about the “death of the novel”, having modestly celebrated its centenary, have dried up. The novel deficiency of the nineties gave way to the novel mania of the 2000s. The production of major prose, bridled by the book business and literary awards, began to flow.

The “reference points” of their socialization were the beginning of perestroika, which they found while still teenagers

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No. 5 [Social pedagogy, 2014]

“Social Pedagogy” is a scientific and applied journal, which is addressed not only to social educators and social workers, but also to a wide range of specialists who work with children and adolescents. Among the authors are well-known scientists - academicians of the Russian Academy of Education, researchers, managers and a large group of practitioners representing various regions of the country. The magazine publishes normative and legal documents relating to various aspects of protecting the rights and legitimate interests of children and their families. Considerable attention is paid to improving the qualifications of specialists, innovative programs are offered for social educators, specialists from guardianship authorities, and potential parents of foster families.

and phenomena such as the desire to do good (on the part of parents towards their son) and the protest of a teenager<...>the influence and characteristics of the manifestations of the crisis of adolescence are of particular importance in stimulating adolescence<...>Rejection of a child by parents is one of the basic reasons for adolescent aggressiveness.<...>According to some studies, teenagers are the predominant component of the social media audience.<...>Central Design Bureau "BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Kniga-Service" It is in networks that the real interests of modern teenagers are reflected

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Alexander Alekseevich Lomtev - journalist, writer. Born in 1956. Founder and publisher of the cultural and educational newspaper “Sarov Desert”. Published in various literary magazines in Russia. Author of the books “Journey with an Angel” (finalist for the 2008 Bunin Prize in the category “Discovery of the Year”), “Underwood”, “Ashes of Memory”. Laureate of the Union of Writers of Russia “Imperial Culture” award, the “Patriot of Russia” award, etc. Lives in Sarov, Nizhny Novgorod region.

Moscow and Leningrad intelligent teachers taught, and after school they played village games, teenagers

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SCIENTIFIC AND FORESTRY FOUNDATIONS FOR THE CONSERVATION OF SPRUCE UNDERSTANDING DURING CLEAN CUTTING IN THE MAIN FIRE TYPES OF FOREST GROWTH CONDITIONS OF THE LATVIAN SSR ABSTRACT OF THE DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

LATVIAN AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY

The purpose of this work was to determine the possibilities of preserving spruce undergrowth in the Latvian SSR during the development of plantations by clear felling, to study the associated changes in forest growth conditions and their impact on spruce undergrowth, to find out the possibilities of timely determination of the expected effect of preliminary regeneration based on the external signs of spruce undergrowth in accordance with forest conditions , which would allow practice workers to easily navigate which spruce undergrowth and where has forestry significance in the formation of future forest plantations.

The results of studies of spruce undergrowth show that in older spruce stands, as<...>SURVIVAL OF SPRUCE YOUTH IN CLEAR CUTTINGS 1.<...>viable spruce undergrowth (Table 1).<...>In addition to spruce undergrowth, a certain amount of undergrowth of other species is preserved.<...>ECONOMIC EFFECT OF CONSERVATION OF SPUR UNDERGROWTH Preservation of spruce undergrowth as a future forest-forming material

Preview: SCIENTIFIC AND FORESTRY BASICS OF CONSERVATION OF SPRUCE UNDERSTANDING DURING CLEAN LOGGING IN THE MAIN SPUR TYPES OF FOREST GROWTH CONDITIONS OF THE LATVIAN SSR.pdf (0.0 Mb)

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Ecological and physiological characteristics of spruce in blueberry birch forests: monograph

The results of many years of field research on the ecology and physiology of spruce under conditions of different light and nitrogen nutrition in the northern taiga blueberry birch forests of the European North are presented. The patterns of dynamics of physiological processes in subcanopy spruce and ground cover plants are considered depending on the successional development of birch forests, the intensity of felling and the dose of introduced nitrogen, and the physiological mechanisms of action of these environmental factors. Attention was paid to studying the state of vital activity of root systems, the characteristics of CO2 gas exchange, the seasonal dynamics of pigment accumulation, the rate of post-photosynthetic outflow, the movement and distribution of carbon-14 in spruce organs. From a physiological and biochemical point of view, the issues of substantiating the effectiveness of cuttings and the dose of introduced nitrogen and their influence on the physiology and growth of subcanopy spruce are considered. The possibility of assessing the level of adaptive ability of spruce to changing phytoenvironmental conditions based on the study of ecological and physiological indicators is shown.

Therefore, the survival of spruce undergrowth in the deciduous-spruce forests of the North mainly depends on its ability<...>undergrowth in deciduous-spruce plantations increases significantly.<...>Spruce undergrowth – 3.6 thousand specimens. for 1 hectare.<...>undergrowth in spruce-deciduous and spruce plantations.<...>In the control, this process has not yet begun in the spruce undergrowth.

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Ecological factors of natural regeneration under the canopy of blueberry spruce forests

Northern (Arctic) Federal University named after M.V. Lomonosov

The results of a study of natural regeneration under the canopy of spruce forests in the northern taiga of the Arkhangelsk region are presented. Information is provided on the quantity and quality of undergrowth of different altitudinal categories. It is stated that the amount of undergrowth is clearly insufficient for successful restoration of spruce forests. The reasons for this phenomenon are being clarified. The supply of seeds in the forest litter and mineral horizons was determined. Environmental factors influencing adolescence are analyzed.

there was no or insufficient amount of spruce undergrowth.<...>then 40-60 year old spruce undergrowth under a spruce plantation is a completely common occurrence.<...>restoration of the number of spruce undergrowth (100–760 pcs.<...>In general, all parameters of spruce undergrowth needles increase with increasing size of the undergrowth - the larger the undergrowth<...>to restore the number of spruce undergrowth (100–760 pcs.

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FORMATION OF MIXED SPUR-LEAVED YOUNG STANDS IN CLEAR CUTTINGS ON THE EXAMPLE OF LISINSKY EDUCATIONAL AND EXPERIMENTAL FORESTRY ENTERPRISE ABSTRACT OF THE DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

The purpose of this research is to study the processes of formation of mixed young stands in clearings in specific forest conditions. The end result of the research is the development of care recommendations that ensure not only an improvement in the qualitative composition of forest stands (due to the predominance of coniferous species), but also an increase in the productivity of these plantings

", ". "~ At the beginning of this century in Russia, many researchers showed great interest in spruce undergrowth in the formation of productive spruce plantations<...>biology and ecology of spruce undergrowth in felled areas.<...>Along with the study of the aboveground part of the spruce undergrowth, the root systems were also studied (36 specimens)<...>This fact determines the quality structure and growth energy of spruce undergrowth. 8.

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Ecological and biological features of spruce in northern taiga phytocenoses (condition, anthropogenic influence) monograph

Northern (Arctic) Federal University named after M.V. Lomonosov

The results of many years of field research on the ecology and physiology of spruce under different water, light and nitrogen nutrition conditions in the northern taiga phytocenoses of the European North are presented. Considerable attention is paid to studying the state of vital activity of spruce root systems, the characteristics of CO2 gas exchange, the seasonal dynamics of pigment accumulation, the rate of post-photosynthetic outflow, the movement and distribution of carbon-14 in organs, and growth processes depending on the state of these environmental factors. The issues of substantiating the effectiveness of different types of cuttings and doses of applied nitrogen in northern taiga spruce and blueberry birch forests are considered in detail from a physiological and biochemical point of view, and recommendations are given for achieving higher physiological and silvicultural effects for spruce under the influence of these factors. The possibility of assessing the level of adaptive ability of spruce to changing phytoenvironmental conditions based on the study of ecological and physiological indicators is shown.

<...> <...> <...> <...>

Preview: Ecological and biological features of spruce in northern taiga phytocenoses, state, anthropogenic influence.pdf (0.3 Mb)

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RELATIONSHIP OF OAK AND SPRUCE IN THE MOSCOW REGION ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

M.: FACULTY OF BIOLOGY AND SOIL

Throughout the entire studied territory, in all habitats where spruce and oak grow together, their relationships lie in the plane of short-term demutational changes. Spruce forms temporary plantations that replace small-leaved forests in places of clearings and dry lands and are replaced by a climax - an oak forest.

In P. oxalidosum, massive sprout sprouts are often observed, but the spruce undergrowth here is slightly cleared and<...>Here you can see only single specimens of dried or half-dried spruce undergrowth that appeared<...>In P. cari cosum pilosae, as a rule, spruce undergrowth is generally absent; oak undergrowth is represented<...>Spruce-blueberry forests are characterized by the presence of good spruce undergrowth, because... spruce is capable here<...>The group of spruce trees here are always* of different ages, just as the spruce stands themselves are of different ages.

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Northern (Arctic) Federal University named after M.V. Lomonosov

The dynamics of physiological and growth processes in subcanopy spruce during the age change of blueberry birch forest was studied. It has been established that the growth and formation of the spruce population is determined by the joint ontogenesis of the derivative (birch) forest stand and the recovering spruce population, the completeness and closeness of the deciduous canopy. At the initial stages of the formation of a birch stand, the speed of physiological processes and the growth of spruce mainly depend on environmental factors. The growth of apical shoots and the intensity of physiological processes in spruce undergrowth reach their maximum values ​​in birch forests of 6–8 years of age at the initial stages of colonization of deciduous trees. In a birch forest of this age, the intensity of photosynthesis in the spruce undergrowth is 3–4 times higher than under the canopy of an adult tree stand. Under these conditions, water exchange in spruce is more active and the root system works more intensively. With further age-related development of the birch stand, due to the formation of the upper deciduous canopy and the deterioration of the light regime, the physiological and growth activity of the subcanopy spruce begins to weaken. Already in a 13-year-old birch forest, spruce youngsters experience adverse environmental impacts from birch. From 20–25 years of age, complete biological oppression of spruce by birch begins, which continues until the spruce enters the first tier. Despite the high content of pigments, the intensity of photosynthesis in spruce undergrowth in a plantation of this age does not exceed 5...8 mg CO2/(gh), which is 3–4 times lower than in an 8-year-old birch forest, and significantly weaker than in 13 year old planting. To improve the condition of spruce and increase its biological stability, timely implementation of assistance measures through thinning is necessary. Already at the age of 20...25 years the birch tree needs to be lightened. In mature forest stands, it is advisable to start the first step of gradual felling at 50...60 years, the second – after 8...10 years.

The results of our research showed that greatest number light spruce teenager gets on fresh<...>By the age of 23 years, the birch tree’s ability to assimilate atmospheric carbon dioxide, despite<...>In a spruce-birch forest stand, the first signs of the presence of radiocarbon compounds in the roots of the undergrowth<...>A day later, radioactivity of young needles in undergrowth in a mature spruce stand due to its underdevelopment<...>The lowest photosynthesis and shortened shoots in spruce undergrowth were observed in birch forests that had reached the age of

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Ecological and biological features of spruce in northern taiga phytocenoses (condition, anthropogenic influence): monograph

Northern (Arctic) Federal University named after M.V. Lomonosov

The results of many years of field research on the ecology and physiology of spruce under conditions of different water, light regimes and nitrogen nutrition in the northern taiga phytocenoses of the European North are presented. Considerable attention is paid to studying the state of vital activity of spruce root systems, the characteristics of CO2 gas exchange, the seasonal dynamics of pigment accumulation, the rate of post-photosynthetic outflow, the movement and distribution of carbon-14 in organs, and growth processes depending on the state of these environmental factors. The issues of substantiating the effectiveness of different types of cuttings and doses of applied nitrogen in northern taiga spruce and blueberry birch forests are considered in detail from a physiological and biochemical point of view, and recommendations are given for achieving higher physiological and silvicultural effects for spruce under the influence of these factors. The possibility of assessing the level of adaptive ability of spruce to changing phytoenvironmental conditions based on the study of ecological and physiological indicators is shown.

/min, and in a 37-year-old spruce plantation renewed from preserved undergrowth – 292.2·103 imp.<...>Respiration of roots As our research has shown, in deciduous-spruce forests the roots of spruce undergrowth breathe<...>The pool of carotenoid pigments in young trees changes little during the ontogenesis of a deciduous-spruce plantation.<...>Lighting regime and photosynthesis in spruce undergrowth in birch-spruce stands of the Vologda region // Physiological<...>On the role of spruce undergrowth in the formation of spruce and birch plantations // Lesn. household 1963. No. 5. P. 7–9.

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SCIENTIFIC JUSTIFICATION OF MEASURES TO PROMOTE THE NATURAL RENEWAL OF CONIFEROUS SPECIES IN LOGGED AREAS OF THE KARELIAN ASSR ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

LENINGRAD ORDER OF LENIN FORESTRY ACADEMY NAMED AFTER S. M. KIROVA

In this work, for the conditions of the Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, the results of a study of the process of natural regeneration and its natural features under modern methods of forest exploitation and the results of a study of the influence of the main promoting measures on natural reforestation are presented: leaving pests, soil preparation, preserving undergrowth.

Survival of pine undergrowth after clear cutting in the lingonberry pine forest type and spruce undergrowth in the type<...>Small spruce undergrowth is almost completely viable, with the exception of growing on semi-decomposed<...>the color of the needles of all small spruce undergrowth. with the exception of growing on half-decomposed dead wood<...>An external sign of the viability of large spruce undergrowth is the length of the crown, which, when<...>The role of spruce and pine undergrowth in the formation of young trees (survival of undergrowth). Sat.

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Northern (Arctic) Federal University named after M.V. Lomonosov

Natural regeneration under the canopy of small-leaved forests in the north of the European part of Russia was studied. The studies were carried out in birch and aspen forests of different ages. It has been established that the natural regeneration of spruce in the North under the canopy of small-leaved forests is generally quite successful. Under the canopy of birch forests there is an average of up to 4.4 thousand specimens/ha of undergrowth. Among the total number, there are more than 3.0 thousand specimens/ha of spruce undergrowth, which is quite sufficient for the restoration of spruce forests with proper compliance with silvicultural requirements and technologies during the organization of logging operations during logging. In aspen forests, most young spruce trees are found in the middle taiga subzone (an average of 2.8 thousand ind./ha), which is also quite sufficient for their transformation into spruce-deciduous and spruce plantations. In the northern subzone of the taiga, regeneration of spruce in aspen forests is unsatisfactory. Here, per 1 hectare of area there are no more than 1.0 thousand specimens. young spruce and about 0.6 thousand copies. birch trees The condition of the existing spruce undergrowth under the canopy of birch and aspen forests is unsatisfactory, which can be significantly improved by appropriate measures in the form of selective or gradual felling. As you move from north to south total spruce undergrowth under the canopy of small-leaved forests decreases, the share of large undergrowth decreases especially noticeably, and the share of small undergrowth increases. In terms of the amount of undergrowth present under the canopy, the birch forests of the northern subzone differ from the middle subzone in its higher content. The average age and height of most of the spruce undergrowth in blueberry birch forests of the northern subzone is 10 years higher compared to the average subzone and amounts to 48 and 38 years and 2.5 and 1.4 m, respectively. The participation of deciduous species in the reforestation process of birch and aspen forests ranges from 10 to 28%. The main representative in the undergrowth is birch (up to 82%). The share of aspen regrowth in birch forests does not exceed 6%; in aspen forests it increases to 17%.

up to 100 thousand copies. and more than 1-2 year old spruce undergrowth.<...>This amount of spruce in the undergrowth is clearly not enough to restore native spruce stands.<...>spruce stand.<...>Formation of spruce stands from undergrowth in clearings of small-leaved forests // Lesn. household 1991. No.<...>On the role of spruce undergrowth in the formation of spruce and birch plantations // Lesn. household 1963. No. 5.

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Proceedings on forestry experimental work in Russia, report on forestry experimental work for 1910.

Type. Moscow A. Alexandrova

Proceedings on experimental forestry in Russia

Soybean-spruce with linden undergrowth. \ Spruce-deciduous “Old Bank”. Oak along the floodplains*.<...>X « 4, spruce undergrowth is populated very poorly.<...>In the first case, we choose the spruce-deciduous type. and in the second there is spruce-broadleaf.<...>The advantage of the spruce-deciduous and spruce-broad-leaved types is that in the first there is a significant<...>spruce-broad-leaved mud.

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ALLELOPATHIC FACTOR IN THE RELATIONSHIP OF SOME FOREST PLANTS ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

LENINGRAD ORDER OF LENIN FORESTRY ACADEMY NAMED AFTER S. M. KIROVA

The purpose of this study was to establish the nature of the biochemical influence of forest cereals on the growth and other physiological processes of self-seeding conifers and to assess the role of the allelopathic effect of cereals in the death of conifers in cereal clearings.

The average number of spruce undergrowth on the site is 7QQ thousand specimens per hectare. .<...>Pure spruce undergrowth. Composition 10E units. B.S. The quantity of spruce was 860 thousand/ha. Height 30 cm. P.<...>Spruce undergrowth with a slight admixture of birch. Composition 9E1B + C. Amount of spruce 1 million^ha.<...>Spruce undergrowth mixed with birch. ",.-." t _ Composition I tier 9B1S-NE.. Height of the I tier 3.0 m.<...>The negative effect of toxic substances on spruce growth is also enhanced because spruce young

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Selkolkhozgiz

Collection of tasks and questions on forestry

Completeness 0.6; a lot of spruce undergrowth.<...>Spruce undergrowth is sparse and depressed.<...>Lots of good spruce undergrowth.<...>Dense spruce undergrowth 3-6 m high, with linden sap nearby, etc. 1358.<...>Spruce undergrowth. Undergrowth of linden, euonymus, buckthorn and rowan.

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STEM AND OTHER DISEASES OF CONIFEROUS GROWTH IN CUTTING GROUND IN KARELIA ABSTRACT OF DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

The objectives of the work included the following questions: 1) identifying the main diseases of young plantings in Karelia and establishing their prevalence; 2) a study of the quality of spruce undergrowth in connection with its injury during logging (types of wood damage and the mycoflora that develops, the cause of the formation of brown wound rot and some conditions for its development; 3) a study of a little-known disease in the USSR, pine canker (symptoms, pathogen and features its biology, factors contributing to the appearance and development of the disease).

DISEASES OF SPRUCE h Wound rot Work on the study of wound rot of spruce undergrowth is almost unknown, although<...>Brown wound rot and wounds do not have a noticeable effect on the height growth of spruce undergrowth, but<...>Spruce undergrowth in all growing conditions, where the main disease is wound rot. " 1.<...>Spruce undergrowth in all growing conditions, where the main disease is wound rot.<...>-Damage to spruce undergrowth during logging and wound rot.

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DYNAMICS OF ORGANIC MATTER AND NITROGEN IN SODD-PODZOL SOILS IN BEREZNYAKA AND IN A CLEAR CUTTING IN THE SUBZONE OF THE SOUTHERN TAIGA ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

M.: MOSCOW ORDER OF LENIN AND ORDER OF THE RED BANNER OF LABOR AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY NAMED AFTER K. A. TIMIRYAZEV

Conclusions 1. Clear cutting with preserved spruce undergrowth in small-leaved forest stands of the southern taiga significantly affects the dynamics of organic matter and nitrogen, temperature and hydrological regimes and, to a lesser extent, soil properties. 2. The phytocenosis that forms in the clearing, despite its “undeveloped” state, is able to quite fully use the potential capabilities of the habitat and the annual plant production is restored to its original values ​​in the 4-6th year after cutting...

Assess spruce* undergrowth based on leaf analysis and biometric indicators when optimizing nitrogen<...>Conclusions from applications: fertilizers to accelerate the growth of spruce undergrowth in felling areas have been used in<...>The production of spruce undergrowth and grasses had low values ​​in the first year, but then decreased. the second year she sharply<...>The removal of nitrogen by spruce growth over the years of observation increased from 3 to 6 kg/ha.<...>-"VI """." 7*"" ---;"7;"Spruce undergrowth preserved during the development of the cutting area ̂ ;"."]

Preview: DYNAMICS OF ORGANIC MATTER AND NITROGEN IN SODDLY-PODZOL SOILS IN BEREZNYAK AND IN A CLEAR CUTTING IN THE SOUTHERN TAIGA SUBZONE.pdf (0.2 Mb)

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Proceedings and research on forestry and forest industry Vol. 10

Ed. Leningr. FiSt. Petersburg All-Union. scientific research Institute of Forestry and Forestry Industry 2nd type. Transprints of the NKPS

Works and research on forestry and timber industry

The accepted limit age of spruce undergrowth in spruce-deciduous forest stands is class V. age at middle<...>SPRUCE UNDERGROWTH Splashing FROM 1 TO t"rr "AL" Drawing 2 Projections of tree crowns and distribution of spruce undergrowth<...>Spruce undergrowth in the amount of 9.9 thousand specimens per i“, up to 3 m high.<...>This closeness “allows, apparently, spruce undergrowth to settle under the canopy of spruce crowns, but in<...>When distributing the age of spruce undergrowth under the canopy of medium-sized spruce-deciduous stands

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VITALITY OF THE SPRUCE GROWTH AND ITS PRESERVATION DURING MECHANIZED CLEAR CUTTINGS ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

USSR ACADEMY OF SCIENCES SIBERIAN BRANCH INSTITUTE OF FOREST AND WOOD

Issues of quantitative and qualitative characteristics of spruce renewal were studied in 1958-61. in the spruce and blueberry forests of Siversky, Tikhvinsky and Kapshinsky forestry enterprises

To improve the vital condition of poor quality spruce undergrowth under the forest canopy, the following is necessary:<...>Includes pure spruce forests with a density of 0.5, spruce-deciduous and deciduous-spruce plantations with a density of<...>. , Available studies characterize the preserved spruce undergrowth mainly from the general point of view<...>It is also known that the use of the same technological data on the persistence of spruce undergrowth during forestry<...>The spruce undergrowth present under the forest canopy is of high and average vital condition during continuous

Preview: VITALITY OF SPRUCE UNDERSTANDING AND ITS PRESERVATION DURING MECHANIZED CLEAR CUTTINGX.pdf (0.0 Mb)

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Northern (Arctic) Federal University named after M.V. Lomonosov

The article presents the results of studies assessing the potential of spruce plantations of various origins for creating forest plantations using silvicultural methods, intended to obtain target assortments in the conditions of the southern taiga region of the European part of Russia. Plantings with the participation of spruce of different ages of natural and artificial origin were analyzed, taking into account the characteristics of forest growing conditions in the southwestern part of the Kostroma region. In artificial spruce stands without thinning or with cutting intensity of up to 20% at the age of 20 to 40 years, the share of deciduous species can reach 2–4 units. In plantations aged from 45 to 60 years, the share of soft-leaved species is no more than 2 units. Carrying out maintenance in spruce crops and in natural plantings of soft-leaved species formed on the site of former clearings with viable undergrowth will allow the formation of pure and mixed plantings of accelerated cultivation. The types of plantings that are most promising for the formation of thinning plantations with the accelerated cultivation of target assortments of spruce in the forest conditions of the southern taiga forest region of the European part of Russia have been identified. An assessment was made of the potential for the formation of forest plantations in various forest growth conditions of dark coniferous forests based on the assortment structure of forest stands on trial plots. Spruce forests of artificial origin, compared to spruce stands of natural origin, have a larger volume of industrial wood, including sawlogs. The yield of target assortments in natural forest stands decreases with increasing age of the forest stand. Due to the limited amount of spruce undergrowth under the canopy and the significant proportion of natural regeneration of deciduous trees, it is advisable to carry out thinning (mainly in the sorrel group of forest types). Previously created conditional plantation spruce crops require intensive thinning. For citation: Chudetsky A.I., Bagaev S.S. Assessment of the potential of spruce plantations for creating forest plantations using silvicultural methods in the southern taiga region of the European part of Russia. Lesn. magazine 2019. No. 2. pp. 22–31. (Reports from higher educational institutions). DOI: 10.17238/issn0536-1036.2019.2.22
The article presents the results of studies on the potential assessment of spruce plantations of different origin for the development of forest plantations by silvicultural methods in order to obtain target assortment in the southern taiga region of the European part of Russia. The analysis of spruce plantations of different age and natural and artificial origin, taking into account the features of site conditions in the south-western part of Kostroma region, is given. In spruce stands of artificial origin at the age of 20…40 years without improvement thinning or with thinning intensity up to 20% the proportion of deciduous species can reach up to 2–4 units. The share of softwood species is not more than 2 units in plantations at the age of 45–60 years. Carrying out tending of spruce crops and natural stands of softwood species formed on the felling site with viable undergrowth will allow the formation of pure and mixed plantations of accelerated cultivation. Types of stands which are the most promising for the formation by improvement thinning of plantations for the advanced growth of spruce target assortment under forest site conditions of the southern taiga forest region of the European part of Russia were selected. The potential assessment of forest plantation formation in different forest site conditions for dark coniferous forest growing was carried out based on the stand assortment structure of trial plots. Spruce forests of artificial origin have a greater volume of industrial wood including sawlog in comparison with spruce forests of natural origin. The yield of target assortment in natural stands decreases with the increase of stand age. It is advisable to carry out improvement thinning (mainly in the sorrel family), due to the limited amount of spruce undergrowth under plantation canopy and the significant share of natural regeneration of hardwood species. The conventional plantation spruce crops, which were created earlier, need intensive thinning. For citation: Chudetsky A.I., Bagaev S.S. Potential Assessment of Spruce Stands for the Development of Forest Plantations by Silvicultural Methods in the Southern Taiga Region of the European Part of Russia. Lesnoy Zhurnal, 2019, no. 2, pp. 22–31. DOI: 10.17238/issn0536-1036.2019.2.22

teenager<...>Only at PPP No. 28 and 31 the juveniles ate better (3420 and 2650 pcs.<...>When the upper canopy is thinned, the viability of the undergrowth improves (PPP No. 31).<...>undergrowth or second layer of spruce in the sorrel group of forest types (TLU – C3).<...>Under certain thinning regimes, it is possible to improve the productivity of spruce of the 2nd tier or spruce undergrowth

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RESEARCH OF THE SIZE AND COLOR OF THE FALSE KERNEL OF ASPEN DEPENDING ON ITS GROWTH CONDITIONS ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

LENINGRAD ORDER OF LENIN FORESTRY ACADEMY NAMED AFTER S. M. KIROVA

The goal is to study the varieties of red blight, establish the pattern of their distribution along the trunk, and study the connection of red blight with the morphological characteristics of trees, their growing conditions and with heart rot.

When cutting down part of the area, spruce undergrowth and young growth were preserved.<...>. aspen Aspen with dense spruce undergrowth Birch aspen Edges of aspen plantations Thickness of trees<...>In spruce-aspen dark-core aspens there was only 33%, in aspen forests with dense spruce undergrowth - 25%, in pure<...>areas, by 6% and less than in aspen plantations with dense spruce undergrowth, by 7%. 7.<...>areas and aspen forests with dense spruce undergrowth, i Birch and aspen plantations are dominated by trees

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ECOLOGICAL AND BIOLOGICAL JUSTIFICATION OF GRADUAL LOGGING IN BLUEBERRY BIRCH FILES IN THE NORTHERN TAIGA SUBZONE OF THE EUROPEAN PART OF RUSSIA ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

ALL-RUSSIAN RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF FORESTRY AND FORESTRY MECHANIZATION

The purpose of the study is to substantiate the regime of releasing spruce undergrowth from under the canopy of deciduous plantations by gradual felling in the conditions of the northern sub-zone of the taiga.

The purpose of the study is to justify the regime for releasing spruce undergrowth from under the canopy of deciduous plantings<...>Main objectives of the study. 1 Assess the vital state of spruce undergrowth during leaf ontogenesis<...>shorten the growing period of spruce stands (Pobedinsky, 1961, 1973, 1983).<...>Experimental plot 1 represents a two-tier birch-spruce plantation of age class VI, class IV<...>Photosynthesis, outflow and distribution of 14C assimilates in spruce in deciduous-spruce plantations under complex

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Recommendations for sustainable forest management on drained lands

Karelian Scientific Center RAS

The guidelines were developed on the basis of many years of research by the Forest Institute of the Karelian Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences and long-term observations of the growth of plantings after clear, selective and gradual felling in the drained forests of Karelia. They are an addition to the existing federal “Wood Harvesting Rules” (2007) and take into account the provisions of the Forest Code Russian Federation, regional specifics of silvicultural and environmental conditions of drained forests.

and thinner, the second spruce tier is formed.<...>Spruce undergrowth under the forest canopy is usually of different ages and varies in height.<...>Spruce stands When choosing logging methods in drained ripe and overmature spruce and deciduous-spruce forests<...>/ha of spruce undergrowth.<...>After reconstruction of deciduous-spruce plantations (cutting of deciduous trees), conditions for the growth of undergrowth improve

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The features of the influence of different logging technologies on the elements of forest biogeocenosis are considered: undergrowth, soil and living ground cover at the time of logging and their dynamics for a long time after logging in experimental areas of the Moscow region. The preservation of undergrowth and the degree of soil mineralization is closely related to the principle of felling cut trees. The main attention was paid to clear-cut areas. The preservation of spruce undergrowth made it possible to accelerate the formation of the spruce plantation, while the regeneration of deciduous species was observed only on the skids and the loading area. Over the course of 25 years, deciduous trees gradually began to be forced out of these areas, this was especially intense in the parts of the portages farthest from the loading area, where heavy equipment passed only once. On the nearby parts, with repeated passage of the equipment, the appearance of spreading rush was noted, which indicates a high density of the soil. Such conditions make it difficult for not only spruce to regenerate, but also hardwoods, which was also noted at the loading dock. The formation of a forest on an area without preserving young growth occurs when deciduous species dominate, spruce making up the lower tier. The entry of spruce into the upper tier is possible only during thinning or after a significant period of time. The role of preserved undergrowth is significant and is determined by its height and age at the time of felling. An analysis of the distribution of undergrowth in clear-cut areas showed an advantage in the growth of group undergrowth of spruce compared to individually growing ones. A comparative analysis of crop growth and preserved undergrowth showed the advantage of naturally growing spruce

The preservation of spruce undergrowth made it possible to accelerate the formation of the spruce plantation, while the resumption of deciduous<...>25 years after felling due to an increase in the height of the preserved spruce undergrowth growing<...>Spruce undergrowth is represented mainly by the small category; larger spruce undergrowth disappears due to<...>In the area with the preservation of undergrowth, group placement of spruce undergrowth of subsequent renewal predominates<...>Changes in spruce ecosystems under the influence of main cuttings using aggregate technology / I.S.

34

Recommendations for carrying out renewal felling in areas of traditional environmental management, economic purposes and recreation of the Vodlozersky NP

Karelian Scientific Center RAS

Vodlozersky National Park is one of the few in the European part of Russia where large tracts of primary forests have been preserved, which are characterized by diversity of ages and vertical dissection of the tree canopy, specific flora and fauna. In accordance with the Federal Law “On Specially Protected Natural Territories”, the Park has five zones with different regimes of use. The project for the organization and development of forestry in the zone of traditional environmental management and economic purposes of the Park defines forestry activities (felling for young growth, thinning, renewal felling, selective sanitary and landscape shaping felling). The basis for planning the territorial placement of forestry activities is a landscape approach, which assumes that the system of activities carried out will not disturb the balance of the existing landscape and at the same time preserve the biological diversity of the territory. Carrying out forestry activities (in particular, renewal felling) will help improve the sanitary condition of tree stands, preserve and strengthen the water-protection and soil-protection functions of the forest and will partially solve the problems of supplying the Park with wood for the improvement of its territory.

Spruce stands One of the most important characteristics of native spruce forests is the age structure<...>/ha of viable spruce undergrowth, including large ones (1.5 m in height or more) 300–500 pcs.<...>The safety of spruce undergrowth using the assortment harvesting method averages about 70–75% of<...>Spruce undergrowth with an increase of at least 10 cm over the last 5 years should be considered viable.<...>This also applies to large spruce undergrowth. The method of recording undergrowth is tape.

Preview: Recommendations for carrying out renewal logging in areas of traditional environmental management, economic purposes and recreation of the Vodlozersky NP. Petrozavodsk Karelian Research Center RAS, 2009. - 27 pp. .pdf (0.2 Mb)

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FEATURES OF SPATIAL VARIATION OF SOME PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SODDY-PODZOL SOIL IN FOREST BIOGEOCENOSES ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

M.: MOSCOW STATE UNIVERSITY NAMED AFTER M.V. LOMONOSOV

Goal of the work. Using the example of the soddy-podzolic soil of the hairy-sap spruce forest, study: 1) the features of variation in the physical properties of the soil both within the biogeocenosis and individual parcels, depending on the structure of the BGC and the position of sampling points relative to the edificator trees of the parcels;

For spruce undergrowth, the maximum AQ reserves were observed in the middle part of the crown projection and in the “windows”.<...>The variation in litter reserves increases: 1) in rows by parcels: spruce undergrowth, hairy sedge<...>How statistically significant can be noted the confinement of spruce undergrowth to “okas”, spots of ungulate<...>Humidity increases in the row: hairy sedge parcel, spruce undergrowth, hoof spots.<...>The highest value of £ was observed in the soil under spruce undergrowth, the minimum value under patches of hoofed grass.

Preview: FEATURES OF SPATIAL VARIATION OF SOME PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SODDLY-PODZOL SOIL IN FOREST BIOGEOCENOSES.pdf (0.0 Mb)

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The article examines the directions of change in species composition in the main formations of the Losiny Ostrov National Park - birch forests, pine forests, spruce forests and linden forests. Data from 15 years of observations on 60 permanent trial plots are presented, as well as a comparative analysis of forest management materials from the mid- and late 20th century. The objects of research are united in rows reflecting the successive stages of species change during the natural dynamics of plantings - the expansion of undergrowth under the mother canopy, the formation of the 2nd tier and the change of species in the main canopy. The most common variants of dynamics are the replacement of birch and pine by linden, less often by spruce. Trends in the formation of linden forests with the participation of other broad-leaved species on the site of spruce forests that were severely damaged after drought and an outbreak of the typograph bark beetle in 2010–2012 were traced. The trend towards the dominance of small-leaved linden is considered as a natural process of restoration of its position after a decrease in economic activity, occurring against the background of the mesoclimatic effect of the Moscow metropolis. The former dominance of coniferous species is associated both with a colder climate at the time of the formation of plantations, and with the artificial maintenance of the dominance of coniferous species through the creation of forest crops. The probable reasons for the dominance of spruce in the composition of the undergrowth and the 2nd layer in the mid-twentieth century are analyzed. has not led to an increase in the area of ​​spruce forests at the present time.

Replacing spruce with linden in conditions of complex forest types after the spruce part of the stand dries out. Fig. 6.<...>Spruce did not regain its position, despite the fact that before the war approximately 40% of plantings had spruce undergrowth<...>The question of why spruce undergrowth did not ensure the restoration of the share of spruce forests in the Losinoostrovskaya dacha<...>in clumps and, finally, the existence of stable foci of root sponge affecting spruce undergrowth and leading<...>Stability and dynamics of spruce and linden plantations in the north-eastern Moscow region / S.A.

37

The criterion for the stable state of a species in a community is the possibility of a complete generation turnover. The ontogenetic structure of the cenopopulations of wild strawberry Fragaria vesca L. and European wild strawberry Trientalis europaea L., studied in phytocenoses of various stages of succession of the forest community, depended on ecological and cenotic conditions. Cenopopulations of species with a high proportion of individuals of the generative period were formed in destructive areas of the forest community, but seedlings of strawberries and springwort were not found in disturbed areas. For these species, regeneration niches, or microbiotopes - areas with optimal factors for seed germination and successful passage of the initial stages of ontogenesis, can be confined to cenopopulations of climax stages of succession. In entire forest communities, species are characterized by the manifestation of a patient behavior strategy that ensures strong retention of the developed territory. The discovered invasive-regressive ontogenetic structure of the cenopopulation was not an indicator of the instability of species in the community, but reflected the process of successful survival of seedlings. The stages of the life cycle of strawberries and springberries are confined to different coenopopulations, where the necessary conditions for the occurrence of individual stages of ontogenesis developed. The totality of cenopopulations within which a full-fledged generation turnover of strawberries and seven-year-olds took place gives a correct idea of ​​the state of the species in the community. Ecological and cenotic conditions of microgroups of birch-spruce forb pine forests contributed to the formation of different-aged loci of the cenopopulation of Platanthera bifolia (L.) Rich. A variety of factors in a heterogeneous community determined the spatial differentiation of the processes of seed formation and seedling survival. This ensured the passage of the life cycle within one coenopopulation and the stable state of the species.

The work was carried out in a spruce-linden pine forest (4th habitat) and in a birch-spruce pine forest<...>Young people were absent 10 30 2 6 18 10 8 6 10 300 47 3.6.<...>A group formed by spruce undergrowth at the pole stage. Canopy density 0.9.<...>The first tier and undergrowth were missing. 29 species have been recorded.<...>and spruce undergrowth (habits 4.2 and 4.3), where minimal species richness and low

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DOUBLE JUNCTION BARK BEETLES IN FOREST CUTTINGS OF KARELIA ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

ALL-UNION RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF PLANT PROTECTION

We set ourselves the following tasks: to find out the fauna of bark beetles of spruce and pine undergrowth in clearings in Karelia and biological features its most aggressive representatives, which are of practical importance in reforestation; to reveal the main factors regulating the population dynamics of these species and determining the emergence and extinction of their breeding centers in clearings of different ages.

We set ourselves the following tasks: to determine the fauna of bark beetles in spruce and pine undergrowth in cleared areas<...>-Coniferous stumps are breeding grounds for important pests of undergrowth - spruce and Siberian<...>In pine forests, spruce undergrowth under the canopy is in better condition than in full spruce forests, but not so<...>drying out of small spruce and pine undergrowth in 3-5-year-old cutting areas.<...>The amount of spruce undergrowth damaged by spruce roots ranges from 6-20% in 1-2-year-old fellings

Preview: DOUBLE JUNCLE BARK BEETLES IN FOREST CUTTINGS OF KARELIA.pdf (0.1 Mb)

39

SPRUCE FORESTS OF THE EASTERN CARPATHIANS, THEIR GROWTH AND RENEWAL ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

M.: MOSCOW ORDER OF LENIN AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY NAMED AFTER K. A. TIMIRYAZEV

1) find out the patterns of vertical zonation of spruce forests in the Eastern Carpathians and develop a classification of their types; 2) to study the natural regeneration of spruce plantations under their canopy and in clear-cut areas in the conditions of the Eastern Carpathians; 3) explore the growth and development of the Carpathian spruce forests. 40

TYPES OF FIR-SPURE FORESTS IN THE RIONI RIVER BASIN AND THEIR NATURAL RENEWAL IN CONNECTION WITH LOGGING ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

AZERBAIJAN AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE

The purpose of this work was precisely to study the types of fir-spruce forests in connection with the natural regeneration of one of the mountainous regions of Georgia-Racha, located in the upper reaches of the river basin. Rioni.

PARJANADZE Types of fir-spruce forests in the river basin<...>PARJLIADZE Types of fir-spruce forests in the river basin<...>The study of the growth course of spruce and fir undergrowth has so far failed. that both “reliable” and “unreliable”<...>The pattern of quantitative transition of seedlings to teenager 42

FORESTRY RESEARCH OF THE FOREST TYPE SPRUCE-BLUEBERRY ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

LENINGRAD ORDER OF LENIN FORESTRY ACADEMY NAMED AFTER S. M. KIROV

The objective of this work was to study and understand the nature and silvicultural properties of the spruce-blueberry forest type and its complex relationships with the environment.

Studies of the quality of spruce undergrowth have shown that 10-35% of it belongs to the category of “reliable”<...>This guarantees the formation of a new generation of forest "with a predominance of spruce, even if during felling part of the spruce<...>Studies of young trees have shown that in most cases the formation of new spruce plantations<...>With a canopy density of 0.6, the illumination under the canopy of a mature spruce stand was 736 lux.<...>In order to accelerate the formation of spruce and spruce leaves. mature tree stands in clear-cutting areas, it is necessary

Preview: FORESTRY RESEARCH OF THE SPRUCE-BLUEBERRY FOREST TYPE.pdf (0.0 Mb)

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Towards a methodology for assessing the natural regeneration of Schrenk spruce in the conditions of mountain forests of the Northern Tien Shan [Electronic resource] / Mambetov [et al.] // News of higher educational institutions. Forest Journal.- 2018.- No. 4.- P. 63-69.- DOI: 10.17238/issn0536-1036.2018.4.63.- Access mode: https://site/efd/665857

Mountain forests are forests located within mountain systems and individual mountain ranges with fluctuations in relative terrain heights of more than 100 m and an average surface slope from the foot to the top of mountain ranges or to the border of treeless spaces of more than 5 (individual sections of the slope may have a steepness of less than 5 ), as well as forests on mountain plateaus and plateaus, regardless of the slope of the area. These do not include forests on hilly elevations that are not part of mountain systems. Mountain forests occupy about 40% of the total forest area of ​​Kazakhstan. In the mountain forests of the Northern Tien Shan, the main forest-forming species is Schrenk spruce, which naturally grows at an altitude of 1500...2900 m above sea level. On the northern, northwestern and northeastern slopes of the Northern Tien Shan in spruce plantations at an absolute altitude of more than 2200 m, the issue of choosing the composition of tree species is not relevant, since due to harsh climatic conditions the growth of other species is difficult. The purpose of the study is to select and justify a method for assessing the natural regeneration of Schrenck spruce in the mountain forests of the Northern Tien Shan, based on literary sources and our own research. All self-seeding and regrowth of spruce is divided into three altitudinal groups. The study of the success of natural regeneration of spruce, accounting for self-seeding and undergrowth should be carried out by altitude groups, the final assessment should be based on the number of reliable undergrowth above 50 cm. Accounting for regeneration under the forest canopy indicates that high density of stands is not a limiting factor for the emergence of self-seeding spruce, but interferes with the survival of older adolescents. In closed plantations, spruce undergrowth is confined to gaps in the tree canopy with a diameter of 14...18 m, since the main limiting factor for its survival in this case is light. In the spruce plantations of the Northern Tien Shan, as the density of the plantings decreases, the age of reliable undergrowth increases. Competition from adult plants and ground cover have a negative impact on the survival of undergrowth.

Northern (Arctic) Federal University named after M.V. Lomonosov

A method of combined reforestation is considered, in which a combination of felling and reforestation operations is proposed. The undergrowth is dug out from areas where it is guaranteed to be destroyed and planted in safe areas. It is noted that at present there is no methodology for substantiating the performance of sets of units involved in combined reforestation operations. Recommendations for the formation of sets of units are given, and an analysis of their functioning in various production conditions is carried out. Mathematical dependencies are proposed for calculating the productivity of units involved in various operations of the technological process of replanting undergrowth, taking into account their mutually agreed upon operation. Recommendations are given for the implementation of the technological process of transplanting undergrowth with minimal downtime of machines and mechanisms. The proposed methodology for calculating complex output makes it possible to substantiate the effectiveness of the functioning of sets of units under the forest canopy in any production conditions, taking into account various natural and production factors.

Research on the use of naturally occurring spruce undergrowth as crops in cleared areas<...>comprehensive development of forest areas showed good survival rate (96%) of the replanted spruce<...>The characteristics of spruce undergrowth, which can be transplanted from under the canopy, have been experimentally determined<...>operations: VI – individual excavation of undergrowth; VYA - digging holes for planting undergrowth; DTS – delivery<...>teenagers in a vehicle; DTSC – delivery of young children to a vehicle with simultaneous containerization

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Ed. Leningr. agricultural Institute of Typo-lithogr. Red Typograph

Pasha-Kapetsky forest dacha Pasha-Kapetsky educational and experimental. forestry of the Leningrad Agricultural Institute

When the stand density is 0.4-0.6, the spruce undergrowth forms a continuous layer with a density of 0.6-0.7.<...>layer and undergrowth.<...>undergrowth, and with a density of 0.6-2500 pcs. teenagers of different ages (young and old).<...>Although spruce undergrowth survives under the canopy for up to 50-70 years. still needs timely and gradual<...>Old spruce growth suddenly exposed to open space dies at temperatures of 90 - 100° °.

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Age structure of spruce undergrowth of different phenological forms depending on the composition and structure of the forest stand [Electronic resource] / Matveeva, Belyaeva, Danilov // News of higher educational institutions. Forest Journal.- 2018.- No. 1.- P. 47-60.- DOI: 10.17238/issn0536-1036.2018.1.47.- Access mode: https://site/efd/640797

Northern (Arctic) Federal University named after M.V. Lomonosov

The article examines the features of the relationship between the canopy and the age structure of phenoforms of spruce undergrowth. The analysis was carried out for the conditions of the green moss group of forest types in the forest fund of the Leningrad region. The registration of undergrowth using the selective statistical method was carried out on circular plots (10 m2 each), laid out at the same distance from each other along a free path. When carrying out census work, spruce undergrowth under the canopy is distributed into three height groups (small, medium, large) and three phenological forms (early, transitional, late). Studies of the natural regeneration of spruce under the forest canopy were carried out in 2011, 2014 and 2015. on the territory of the experimental forestry “Siversky Forest” in the Kartashevsky, Orlinsky, Druzhnoselsky and Ontsevsky district forest districts of the Gatchina forest district of the Leningrad region (objects were founded in 1929, 1970 and 1980), as well as on the territory of an ecological station located in the Lisinsky district forest district Educational and experimental forestry of the Leningrad region (objects were founded in 1981–1982). The obtained materials indicate that the average age of spruce undergrowth varies according to phenological forms. The lowest average age was observed in adolescents of the late form; in adolescents of the early and transitional forms, the average age was 2–4 years higher. A similar pattern is typical for both viable and non-viable adolescents. It has been established that with an increase in the relative completeness, age and stock of forest stands, the age of undergrowth of all phenological forms increases, regardless of the categories of size and state of viability. The results obtained allow us to conclude that the age structure of spruce undergrowth is influenced by the lighting regime under the canopy of the tree stand. The highest age of the young generation of spruce was observed in the sorrel forest type.

The youngest age of undergrowth is under the canopy of spruce stands (Table 4).<...>Spruce 13.6 13.4 Pine 18.0 18.7 Pine-spruce 16.9 17.7 Average 16.2 16.6 Most likely this is related<...>It was also found that under the canopy of spruce stands greatest age has transitional growth<...>Regardless of phenoforms and size categories, older spruce undergrowth under the canopy of spruce-birch stands<...>, younger - under the canopy of spruce trees.

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Guidelines for completing a course project on “Technology and equipment for logging.” For specialty 250201 “Forestry” methodological instructions

M.: PROMEDIA

Pine undergrowth on 40% of the area. Cowberry and blueberry pine forests with dense spruce undergrowth in conditions<...>Teenagers are 60% natural.<...> <...> <...>Undergrowth on 20% of the area.

Preview: Guidelines for completing a course project on “Technology and equipment for logging.” In specialty 250201 "Forestry".pdf (0.2 Mb) adolescents and adolescents in conditions<...>Teenagers are 60% natural.<...>Concentrated II, III Birch forests in conditions B2, B3 with a second spruce layer and undergrowth.<...>.-4 years for pine and spruce; At least 50 hectares Birch forests in conditions B2, B3 without spruce undergrowth<...>Undergrowth on 20% of the area.Preview: Technology and equipment for forest cuttings.pdf (0.1 Mb)

This word is “puppeteer”, which is explained quite simply. Everything associated with the word “doll” is associated with something small associated with the younger generation, so a word has been chosen for “children.”

A little information about the “teenager”:

The word "teenager" itself denotes a generation young trees that have grown either in the forest itself under the canopy of older trees, or in an empty place - these can be cut down or burnt areas.

Based on their age, undergrowth trees are classified as young trees.

The practical significance of “undergrowth” is quite significant: it is areas with young trees that can become the basis of a new forest area.

People have long understood the importance of such “undergrowth” for the conservation of forests. Therefore, in addition to natural areas with young trees, you can also find artificial ones, that is, specially planted ones; more often, combined ones are found. Experts evaluate the quality indicators, species, density of existing natural regrowth in terms of the number of trees per certain unit of area and plant new specimens, bringing the density of plantings to the established optimal norm and thereby laying the foundation for new tiers of the forest.

In addition to monitoring undergrowth, forestry specialists use a number of practical measures to promote the proper formation of the forest, for example, various types of felling, which have their own purpose and specificity.

Municipal educational institution

Oktyabrskaya secondary school

Manturovo municipal district

Kostroma region

Spruce forest and its undergrowth

Completed:

Borodinsky Ilya Pavlovich

8th grade student

Municipal educational institution Oktyabrskaya secondary school

Supervisor:

Smirnova Tatyana Valerievna

1. Introduction. 3

2. Research methodology. 4 3.Results of the study.

3.1. Features of the spruce forest. 5

3.2. Species composition of spruce forest. 7

3.3. Young spruce forest. 8

3.4. The influence of mature trees on the growth of spruce seedlings and spruce undergrowth. 8

3.5. The influence of mature trees on the formation of young trees. 9

4. Conclusions. eleven

5. Conclusion and prospects 12 6. List of references. 13 7. Applications. 14

1. Introduction

Most of our area is occupied by spruce forests. The spruce forest is a completely special, unique plant community. This forest is gloomy, shady, damp. If you enter a spruce forest from a field or meadow on a hot summer day, you will immediately find yourself in deep shade and feel cool and damp. The whole situation here is sharply different from what is typical of an open place. Spruce greatly changes the environment and creates specific conditions under its canopy.

The composition of plants in the lower layers of the forest is largely determined by the properties of the soil. In those parts of the spruce forest where the soil is poorer in nutrients and more moist, we usually find dense thickets of blueberries on the moss carpet. This type of forest, found near the village of Oktyabrsky, is called a spruce-blueberry forest.

Goal of the work:

study the spruce forest and the undergrowth of the spruce forest.

Tasks:

Find out the features of the spruce forest;

Study the species composition of the spruce forest;

Study the undergrowth of the spruce forest;

Conduct research and identify the influence of mature trees on the growth of spruce seedlings and spruce undergrowth;

Identify the influence of mature trees on the formation of undergrowth.

2. Research methodology

We conducted research work in the summer of 2011.

For our research we used the following equipment: pegs, measuring fork, tape measure.

When performing this work, we used observation and comparison methods. Using the observation method, the species composition of the spruce forest, the external features of the undergrowth and the spruce forest seedlings were studied. The tables were compiled based on the comparison method. This method made it possible to consider and compare the number of sprout sprouts and regrowth, and also helped to determine the final results in this work.

As a result of the analysis of literary sources on biology and ecology, we became acquainted in detail with the vegetation of the spruce forest, soils, growing conditions,,,

3.Research results

3.1. Features of the spruce forest

The spruce forest is a completely special, unique plant community (Appendix I photo1). Spruce creates very strong shading, and only fairly shade-tolerant plants can exist under its canopy. There are usually few shrubs in a spruce forest. The plants that we see under the canopy of the spruce forest are quite shade-tolerant; they not only grow normally in deep shade, but even bloom and bear fruit. All these plants also tolerate the relative poverty of the soil in nutrients and its high acidity (such properties are characteristic of the soil of a spruce forest). At the same time, many spruce forest plants are demanding of soil moisture.

There is almost never any strong air movement under the canopy of the spruce forest. And in the spruce forest you will hardly find plants whose seeds would have any “parachutes” or other devices for dispersal by wind. But there are many plants whose seeds are extremely small, look like dust and are spread even by very weak air currents.

Among the plants found in spruce forests, there are many that have white flowers.

This coloring of flowers is not accidental. This is an adaptation to the poor lighting under the canopy of a spruce forest. White flowers are more visible in the twilight than any other, and are easiest for pollinating insects to find.

Almost all herbaceous plants in the spruce forest are perennial. Every spring they continue their life, but do not start it all over again, from a seed, like annual grasses. They occupy their specific place in the forest for many years. Most plants in the spruce forest have more or less long creeping rhizomes or above-ground shoots that can quickly grow laterally and take over a new area. All these are adaptations to the specific environment under the canopy of the spruce forest. The emergence of new plants from seeds here is fraught with great difficulties: the germination of fallen seeds is hampered by a thick layer of dead needles on the soil and a moss cover. Reproduction by seeds under these conditions is very unreliable. The inhabitants of the spruce forest maintain their existence mainly due to vegetative propagation. Shoots of any plants can appear from seeds only in special conditions- where the layer is removed

fallen pine needles along with the moss cover and the soil was exposed. It is precisely these conditions that are necessary for the mass emergence of sprouts, even of spruce itself.

The litter in the spruce forest has a highly acidic pH and is decomposed almost exclusively by microscopic fungi. The fungal population is very abundant not only in the litter, but also in the upper layers of the soil. It is not surprising, therefore, that many plants of the spruce forest have mycorrhizae; their roots are braided with a thick cover of the finest fungal threads - hyphae. Mycorrhiza plays an important role in the life of forest plants, helping them absorb hard-to-reach nutrients from the soil. Some herbs of the spruce forest are so closely associated in their life with the mycorrhizal fungus that even their seeds cannot germinate without the participation of the fungus.

Another characteristic feature of spruce forest plants is that many of them remain green for the winter and retain living foliage during the cold season. In the spring, as soon as the snow melts, you can always see their old, overwintered green leaves on the soil. It gets a little warmer - and the process of photosynthesis immediately begins in the leaves and organic substances are produced. Relatively few grasses of the spruce forest completely lose their above-ground parts in the fall and overwinter only in the form of underground organs.

Shrubs play an important role in the living ground cover of a spruce forest. All these plants do not differ from shrubs in their structural features, but are only significantly smaller in size.

The mosses that we see on the soil in the spruce forest are very shade-tolerant plants. They can exist in fairly low light. They also tolerate the mechanical impact of dry needles falling from trees. There is no moss cover only in very dense young spruce stands, where almost no light reaches the soil. The appearance of the spruce forest changes little throughout the year. Spruce remains green all the time, and so do many forest herbs. The moss cover also retains its constant green color. Only in spring and early summer do we see some diversity, when some of the grasses along the canopy of the spruce forest begin to bloom.

3. 2. Species composition of the spruce forest

In a spruce forest, the main species is common spruce or Norway spruce (Appendix I photo 2). The root system is taproot for the first 10-15 years, then superficial (the main root dies). The tree is slightly wind resistant. The crown is cone-shaped or pyramidal. The branches are whorled, horizontally spread or drooping. In the first 3-4 years it does not produce lateral shoots. The bark is gray and peels off in thin sheets. The leaves are needle-shaped (needles), green, short, tetrahedral, less often flat, hard and sharp, with 2 keels on the upper and lower sides. Arranged spirally, singly, sitting on leaf pads. They remain on shoots for several (6 or more) years. Up to one-seventh of the needles fall annually. After severe eating of the needles by some insects, for example, the nun butterfly, brush shoots appear - with very short and stiff needles, reminiscent of brushes in appearance.

Gymnosperm plants. The cones are oblong-cylindrical, pointed, do not crumble, and fall off whole when the seeds ripen in the first year of fertilization. Mature cones are hanging, dry, leathery or woody, up to 15 cm long, 3-4 cm in diameter. The cones consist of an axis on which numerous covering scales are located, and in their axils there are seed scales, on the upper surface of which 2 ovules usually develop , equipped with a so-called false wing.

The seeds ripen in October and are dispersed by the wind. They do not lose germination for 8-10 years.

The beginning of fruiting is from 10 to 60 years (depending on growing conditions).

Lives on average up to 250-300 years (sometimes up to 600)

Pure spruce forests are very dense, dense, and dark. Common birch is found near spruce trees, but very rarely. There is almost no undergrowth in the spruce forests, only sporadic common juniper and mountain ash are found. The herbaceous-shrub layer is well developed. Blueberries form a continuous well-developed layer. Sometimes mixed with it in significant quantities are common lingonberry, two-leaf lingonberry, common sorrel, horsetail, and male shield. The moss cover of blueberry spruce forests is sparse and consists of patches of sphagnum moss and cuckoo flax. After felling, in the places of former blueberry spruce forests, reed grass, pike or willowherb clearings appear, then birch, aspen and blueberry-broadgrass pine forests.

Having studied the species composition of the spruce forest, the data was entered into a description form (Appendix II)
8

3.3. Spruce forest undergrowth

Undergrowth - a young generation consisting of woody plants of natural origin growing under the forest canopy, capable of forming the main canopy of a tree stand, not reaching the height of the main tree stand

Undergrowth under the dense canopy of a mature forest has a difficult existence. Seedlings that find themselves on the edge, in a clearing, in areas where enough light penetrates into the gaps in the crowns formed after the old tree fell out, grow well. In such plants, the branches start from the very ground, they are densely covered with foliage or needles of a bright green color, their apex is well developed.

Under the canopy of the spruce forest there are many young spruce trees that did not find themselves in such favorable conditions, and they are forced to be content with what they got. And they got very little. Typically, the undergrowth grows in groups and is concentrated in conditions favorable for seed germination and the initial period of seedling growth. But as they grow, rivalry begins within the group of undergrowth; in addition, the trees are shaded by the upper canopy of the mature forest, and they have to be content with the remnants of the light that penetrated through the crowns of the trees of the older generation. The roots of the undergrowth develop in soil already occupied by the root system of the old forest, and they have to limit themselves to less food and moisture. You can often see one-meter-long fir trees in such undergrowth in a dense spruce forest, which are 30-50 years old.

In depressed undergrowth, the apical shoot is almost invisible; the branches are located only in the upper part of the stem and are located horizontally, so more light reaches them.

In a natural forest, over the years, old trees become decrepit, gradually fall out at different times, and gaps between the trees increase. More light, more moisture in the forest - less competition between the younger generation and the root system of the mother forest. The juvenile recovers, adapts to new conditions and accelerates growth, wedging its apex into the upper canopy. Even after 80-100 years of oppression, spruce can recover and become part of the upper canopy.

The undergrowth can be of seed or vegetative origin. Regrowth of seed origin at an early stage is called self-seeding (for coniferous and deciduous species with heavy seeds) or bloom (for birch, aspen and other deciduous species with light seeds). Plants up to 1 year old are considered to be seedlings. One of the important means of forest restoration is the preservation of undergrowth from damage during logging. 3.4. The influence of mature trees on the growth of spruce seedlings and spruce undergrowth

We chose an area of ​​mature spruce forest (away from roads) with well-defined dead spots under the crowns of mature trees and with a moss carpet between them. We found a spruce tree, under the crown of which there is big number young seedlings (Appendix III photo1), and 5 areas measuring 100 cm 2 (10 * 10 cm 2) were laid here. Another series of platforms were placed between the treetops on a thick moss carpet. We counted the number of spruce seedlings on each plot, and then calculated the average data per plot. The results were entered into the table (Appendix III table 1)

In the same areas (i.e. under the crowns of spruce trees and between them) lay platforms bigger size– 1 m2 and calculated the amount of undergrowth present on them (Appendix IV photo1), without shoots. The data was entered into the table (Appendix IV table 1)

We compared the results and made conclusion:

spruce seedlings appear in greater numbers per unit area directly under the crowns of mature trees, since a thick layer of moss prevents their appearance between the crowns; The seedlings die before their roots reach the soil. On the contrary, the largest number of grown Christmas trees are located between the tree crowns. This discrepancy in the places where trees of different ages are abundantly found is due to the influence of mature trees. Under the crowns, due to strong competition (primarily for light), all seedlings quickly die. In the intercrown areas of the forest, the influence of mature trees is weakened, and here the majority, even of the total small number, of the emerging fir trees are preserved.

3.5. The influence of mature trees on the formation of young trees.

During the research, the state of spruce undergrowth in the forest and at the forest edge was described in order to identify the influence of adult plants on the formation of undergrowth. The undergrowth is of medium height, medium density, uneven, viable.

We chose young fir trees of approximately the same height - 1-1.5 m, growing in the shade of the forest, on its edge or in a clearing; studied them external structure and the data was entered into a table (Appendix V Table 1).

Done conclusion:

On the edges and clearings the condition of the undergrowth spruce forest is good. Here the crowns of the Christmas trees are cone-shaped, with densely spaced, well-covered branches. Under the forest canopy, the crowns of the fir trees are umbrella-shaped, with sparse and weakly covered branches that are strongly elongated to the sides. Moreover, in the bright areas of the forest, undergrowth grows densely, and in the shade, fir trees are found sporadically and rarely. These differences in condition and abundance
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regrowth in different parts of the forest indicate the unfavorable influence of mature trees, which occurs through changes in habitat conditions: shading, etc.

From a comparison of the results, it is clear that the influence of mature spruce trees also affects the undergrowth growing between their crowns, but here it is weakened compared to the sub-crown areas; This influence has even less effect on young people who grow up at the edge of the forest.

conclusions

As a result of the work done, we learned much more about the spruce forest, its species composition, and also studied the influence of mature trees on the growth of spruce seedlings and undergrowth, as well as on the formation of undergrowth.

After the research we came to the conclusion

1. 
   There is no great species diversity in spruce forests, and only shade-tolerant plants grow.
2. 
   Spruce seedlings appear in greater numbers per unit area directly under the crowns of mature trees, since a thick layer of moss prevents their appearance between the crowns; The seedlings die before their roots reach the soil. On the contrary, the largest number of grown Christmas trees are located between the tree crowns. This discrepancy in the places where trees of different ages are abundantly found is due to the influence of mature trees. Under the crowns, due to strong competition (primarily for light), all seedlings quickly die. In the intercrown areas of the forest, the influence of mature trees is weakened, and here the majority, even of the total small number, of the emerging fir trees are preserved.
3. 
   At the edges and clearings the condition of the undergrowth spruce forest is good. Here the crowns of the Christmas trees are cone-shaped, with densely spaced, well-covered branches. Under the forest canopy, the crowns of the fir trees are umbrella-shaped, with sparse and weakly covered branches that are strongly elongated to the sides. Moreover, in the bright areas of the forest, undergrowth grows densely, and in the shade, fir trees are found sporadically and rarely. These differences in the condition and abundance of undergrowth in different parts of the forest indicate the unfavorable influence of mature trees, which occurs through changes in habitat conditions: shading, etc.

From a comparison of the results, it is clear that the influence of mature spruce trees also affects the undergrowth growing between their crowns, but here it is weakened compared to the sub-crown areas; This influence has even less effect on young people who grow up at the edge of the forest.

Conclusion

In our area there are coniferous forests and the predominant species in these forests is spruce. Every year the number of forest plantations is reduced as a result of logging and unauthorized logging.

Undergrowth is a young generation capable of forming the main forest stand. It is the main replacement of a dead or cut down forest, so we must study and protect it.

In the future, I want to continue my work on studying the spruce forest stand, as well as other tree crops.

List of used literature

1. Biological encyclopedic dictionary. Ch. ed. M. S. Gilyarov and others - 2nd edition corrected. - M.: Sov. Encyclopedia, 1989

2. Lerner G.I. Dictionary-reference book for schoolchildren, applicants and teachers. – M.: “5 for knowledge”, 2006.

3. Litvinova L.S. Moral and environmental education of schoolchildren. - M.: “5 for knowledge”, 2005.

4. Rozanov L.L. Dictionary-reference book. - M.: NTSENAS, 2002.

Appendix I

Photo 1. Spruce forest

Photo 2. Norway spruce

Appendix ΙI

Spruce forest vegetation

Description July 15, 2010

Name of associations: spruce forest - blueberry

General character of the relief: flat

Soil (name): sod-podzolic loamy

Humidification conditions: not uniform

Dead litter (composition, thickness, degree of coverage, nature of distribution): last year's needles, continuous covering, evenly distributed, 2 cm

Species composition of tree species

Species composition of undergrowth

Species composition of the shrub layer

Species composition of the herbaceous-shrub layer

№ p/p	View	Latin name
1.	Blueberry	Vaccinium myrtillus
2.	May lily of the valley	Convallaria majalis
3.	Maynik two-leaf	Mojanthenum bifolium
4.	Common lingonberry	Vaccinium vitisidaea
5.	Common oxalis	Oxalis acetosella
6.	Male shieldweed	Dryopteris filix-mas

Appendix II

Photo 1. Spruce shoots

Growing conditions	Number of spruce shoots
						Averages
	1	2	3	4	5
Under the treetops	4	10	3	5	5	5,4
Between crowns (on a layer of moss)	2	4	7	4	1	3.6

Table 1. Number of spruce shoots

Appendix ΙV

Photo 1. Young spruce

Growing conditions	Number of spruce regrowth
	On separate accounting sites					Averages
	1	2	3	4	5
Under the treetops	1	1	1	1	1	1
Between crowns (on a layer of moss)	2	2	3	1	2	2

Table 1. Amount of spruce undergrowth

Appendix V

Table 1. Condition of spruce undergrowth in different conditions