This issue is made on the basis of the three-volume “Military History” by Razin and the book “On Seven Hills” by M.Yu. German, B.P. Seletsky, Yu.P. Suzdalsky. The issue is not a special historical study and is intended to help those who are engaged in the production of military miniatures.
Brief historical background
Ancient Rome is a state that conquered the peoples of Europe, Africa, Asia, and Britain. Roman soldiers were famous throughout the world for their iron discipline (but it was not always iron) and brilliant victories. The Roman commanders went from victory to victory (there were also severe defeats), until all the peoples of the Mediterranean found themselves under the weight of the soldier’s boot.
Roman army in different time had different numbers, number of legions, different formations. With the improvement of military art, weapons, tactics and strategy changed.
In Rome there was universal conscription. Young men began to serve in the army from the age of 17 and up to 45 in field units, after 45 to 60 they served in fortresses. Persons who participated in 20 campaigns in the infantry and 10 in the cavalry were exempt from service. Service life also changed over time.
At one time, due to the fact that everyone wanted to serve in the light infantry (weapons were cheap and purchased at their own expense), the citizens of Rome were divided into categories. This was done under Servius Tullius. The 1st category included people who owned property valued at no less than 100,000 copper asses, the 2nd - at least 75,000 asses, the 3rd - 50,000 asses, the 4th - 25,000 asses, the 5th -mu – 11,500 asses. All poor people were included in the 6th category - proletarians, whose wealth was only their offspring ( proles). Each property category fielded a certain number of military units - centuries (hundreds): 1st category - 80 centuries of heavy infantry, which were the main fighting force, and 18 centuries of horsemen; only 98 centuries; 2nd – 22; 3rd – 20; 4th – 22; 5th - 30 lightly armed centuries and 6th category - 1 century, a total of 193 centuries. Lightly armed warriors were used as baggage servants. Thanks to the division into ranks, there was no shortage of heavily armed, lightly armed infantry and horsemen. Proletarians and slaves did not serve because they were not trusted.
Over time, the state took upon itself not only the maintenance of the warrior, but also withheld from his salary for food, weapons and equipment.
After a severe defeat at Cannes and in a number of other places, after the Punic Wars, the army was reorganized. Salaries were sharply increased and proletarians were allowed to serve in the army.
Continuous wars required many soldiers, changes in weapons, construction, and training. The army became mercenary. Such an army could be led anywhere and against anyone. This is what happened when Lucius Cornellius Sulla came to power (1st century BC).
Organization of the Roman army
After the victorious wars of the IV-III centuries. BC. All the peoples of Italy came under the rule of Rome. To keep them in obedience, the Romans gave some peoples more rights, others less, sowing mutual distrust and hatred between them. It was the Romans who formulated the law of “divide and conquer.”
And for this, numerous troops were needed. Thus, the Roman army consisted of:
a) legions in which the Romans themselves served, consisting of heavy and light infantry and cavalry assigned to them;
b) Italian allies and allied cavalry (after granting citizenship rights to the Italians who joined the legion);
c) auxiliary troops recruited from the inhabitants of the provinces.
The main tactical unit was the legion. At the time of Servius Tullius, the legion numbered 4,200 men and 900 horsemen, not counting 1,200 lightly armed soldiers who were not part of the legion's combat ranks.
Consul Marcus Claudius changed the structure of the legion and weapons. This happened in the 4th century BC.
The legion was divided into maniples (Latin for a handful), centuries (hundreds) and decurii (tens), which resembled modern companies, platoons, and squads.
Light infantry - velites (literally - fast, mobile) walked ahead of the legion in a loose formation and started a battle. In case of failure, she retreated to the rear and flanks of the legion. There were 1200 people in total.
Hastati (from the Latin “gast” - spear) - spearmen, 120 people in a maniple. They formed the first line of the legion. Principles (first) – 120 people in the manipula. Second line. Triarii (third) – 60 people in a maniple. Third line. The triarii were the most experienced and tested fighters. When the ancients wanted to say that the decisive moment had come, they said: “It has come to the triarii.”
Each maniple had two centuries. In the century of hastati or principles there were 60 people, and in the century of triarii there were 30 people.
The legion was assigned 300 horsemen, making up 10 turmas. The cavalry covered the flanks of the legion.
At the very beginning of the use of the manipular order, the legion went into battle in three lines, and if an obstacle was encountered that the legionnaires were forced to flow around, this resulted in a gap in the battle line, the maniple from the second line hurried to close the gap, and the maniple from the second line took the place of the maniple from the third line . During the battle with the enemy, the legion represented a monolithic phalanx.
Over time, the third line of the legion began to be used as a reserve that decided the fate of the battle. But if the commander incorrectly determined the decisive moment of the battle, the legion would face death. Therefore, over time, the Romans switched to the cohort formation of the legion. Each cohort numbered 500-600 people and, with an attached cavalry detachment, acting separately, was a legion in miniature.
Command structure of the Roman army
In tsarist times, the commander was the king. During the Republic, the consuls commanded, dividing the troops in half, but when it was necessary to unite, they commanded alternately. If there was a serious threat, then a dictator was chosen, to whom the chief of the cavalry was subordinate, as opposed to the consuls. The dictator had unlimited rights. Each commander had assistants who were entrusted with separate parts of the army.
Individual legions were commanded by tribunes. There were six of them per legion. Each pair commanded for two months, replacing each other every day, then giving way to the second pair, etc. The centurions were subordinate to the tribunes. Each century was commanded by a centurion. The commander of the first hundred was the commander of the maniple. Centurions had the right of a soldier for misconduct. They carried with them a vine - a Roman rod; this weapon was rarely left idle. The Roman writer Tacitus talked about one centurion, whom the entire army knew by the nickname: “Pass over the other!” After the reform of Marius, an associate of Sulla, the centurions of the triarii gained great influence. They were invited to a military council.
As in our time, the Roman army had banners, drums, kettledrums, trumpets, and horns. The banners were a spear with a crossbar, on which hung a panel of one-color material. The maniples, and after the reform of Maria the cohorts, had banners. Above the crossbar there was an image of an animal (wolf, elephant, horse, boar...). If a unit accomplished a feat, then it was awarded - the award was attached to the flagpole; this custom has survived to this day.
The badge of the legion under Mary was a silver or bronze eagle. Under the emperors it was made of gold. The loss of the banner was considered the greatest shame. Each legionnaire had to defend the banner until last straw blood. In difficult times, the commander threw the banner into the midst of enemies in order to encourage the soldiers to return it back and disperse the enemies.
The first thing the soldiers were taught was to relentlessly follow the badge, the banner. Standard bearers were chosen from strong and experienced soldiers and were held in high esteem and respect.
According to the description of Titus Livy, the banners were a square panel laced to a horizontal crossbar mounted on a pole. The color of the cloth was different. They were all monochromatic - purple, red, white, blue.
Until the Allied infantry merged with the Romans, it was commanded by three prefects chosen from among Roman citizens.
Great importance was attached to the quartermaster service. The head of the quartermaster service was the quaestor, who was in charge of forage and food for the army. He ensured that everything needed was delivered. In addition, each century had its own foragers. A special official, like a captain in a modern army, distributed food to the soldiers. At the headquarters there was a staff of scribes, accountants, cashiers who issued salaries to soldiers, priests-fortunetellers, military police officials, spies, and trumpeter-signal players.
All signals were sent through a pipe. The sound of the trumpet was rehearsed with curved horns. When changing the guard, a futsin trumpet was blown. The cavalry used a special long pipe, curved at the end. The signal to assemble the troops for a general meeting was given by all the trumpeters gathered in front of the commander’s tent.
Training in the Roman Army
The training of the soldiers of the Roman manipular legion primarily consisted of teaching the soldiers to go forward on the orders of the centurion, to fill gaps in the battle line at the moment of collision with the enemy, and to rush to merge into the general mass. Performing these maneuvers required more complex training than that of a warrior fighting in a phalanx.
The training also consisted of the fact that the Roman soldier was sure that he would not be left alone on the battlefield, that his comrades would rush to his aid.
The appearance of legions divided into cohorts, the complication of maneuver, required more complex training. It is no coincidence that after the reform of Marius, one of his associates, Rutilius Rufus, introduced a new training system in the Roman army, which was reminiscent of the system of training gladiators in gladiatorial schools. Only well-trained (trained) soldiers could overcome fear and get close to the enemy, attack a huge mass of the enemy from the rear, feeling only a cohort nearby. Only a disciplined soldier could fight like this. Under Mary, a cohort was introduced, which included three maniples. The legion had ten cohorts, not counting light infantry, and from 300 to 900 horsemen.
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Fig. 3 – Cohort battle formation. |
Discipline
The Roman army, famous for its discipline, unlike other armies of that time, was entirely at the mercy of the commander.
The slightest violation of discipline was punishable by death, as was failure to comply with orders. So, in 340 BC. the son of the Roman consul Titus Manlius Torquatus, during reconnaissance without orders from the commander-in-chief, entered into battle with the head of the enemy detachment and defeated him. He talked about this in camp with delight. However, the consul sentenced him to death. The sentence was carried out immediately, despite the pleas of the entire army for mercy.
Ten lictors always walked in front of the consul, carrying bundles of rods (fasciae, fascines). IN war time an ax was inserted into them. A symbol of the consul's power over his men. First, the offender was flogged with rods, then his head was cut off with an ax. If part or all of the army showed cowardice in battle, then decimation was carried out. Decem in Russian means ten. This is what Crassus did after the defeat of several legions by Spartacus. Several hundred soldiers were flogged and then executed.
If a soldier fell asleep at his post, he was put on trial and then beaten to death with stones and sticks. For minor offenses they could be flogged, demoted, transferred to hard work, reduced in salary, deprived of citizenship, or sold into slavery.
But there were also rewards. They could promote them in rank, increase their salary, reward them with land or money, exempt them from camp work, and award them with insignia: silver and gold chains, bracelets. The award ceremony was carried out by the commander himself.
The usual awards were medals (faleres) with the image of a god or commander. The highest insignia were wreaths (crowns). Oak was given to a soldier who saved a comrade - a Roman citizen - in battle. A crown with a battlement - to the one who first climbed the wall or rampart of an enemy fortress. A crown with two golden bows of ships - to the soldier who was the first to step onto the deck of an enemy ship. The siege wreath was given to the commander who lifted the siege of a city or fortress or liberated it. But the highest reward - triumph - was given to the commander for an outstanding victory, in which at least 5,000 enemies had to be killed.
The triumphant rode on a gilded chariot wearing a purple robe embroidered with palm leaves. The chariot was drawn by four snow-white horses. In front of the chariot they carried spoils of war and led prisoners. The triumphant man was followed by relatives and friends, songwriters, and soldiers. Triumphant songs were sung. Every now and then there were shouts of “Io!” and “Triumph!” (“Io!” corresponds to our “Hurray!”). The slave standing behind the triumphant on the chariot reminded him that he was a mere mortal and so that he should not become arrogant.
For example, the soldiers of Julius Caesar, who were in love with him, followed him, making fun of him and laughing at his baldness.
Roman camp
The Roman camp was well thought out and fortified. The Roman army, as they said, carried the fortress with it. As soon as a halt was made, construction of the camp immediately began. If it was necessary to move on, the camp was abandoned unfinished. Even if it was defeated only for a short time, it differed from a one-day one with more powerful fortifications. Sometimes the army remained in camp for the winter. This type of camp was called a winter camp; instead of tents, houses and barracks were built. By the way, cities such as Lancaster, Rochester and others arose on the site of some Roman camps. Cologne (the Roman colony of Agripinna), Vienna (Vindobona) grew out of the Roman camps... Cities ending in “...chester” or “...castrum” arose on the site of the Roman camps. “Castrum” - camp.
The camp site was chosen on the southern dry slope of the hill. Nearby there should have been water and pasture for the transport's livestock, as well as fuel.
The camp was a square, later a rectangle, the length of which was one third longer than the width. First of all, the location of the praetorium was planned. This is a square area, the side of which is 50 meters. The commander's tents, altars, and a platform for addressing the commander's soldiers were placed here; The trial and the gathering of troops took place here. To the right was the tent of the quaestor, to the left - the legates. There were tribune tents on both sides. In front of the tents, a street 25 meters wide ran through the entire camp; the main street was crossed by another, 12 meters wide. At the ends of the streets there were gates and towers. There were ballistas and catapults on them (one and the same throwing weapon, got its name from the projectile thrown, ballista, metal cannonballs, catapult - arrows). Legionnaires' tents stood in regular rows on the sides. From the camp the troops could set out on a campaign without fuss or disorder. Each century occupied ten tents, and each maniple occupied twenty. The tents had a plank frame, a gable plank roof, and were covered with leather or rough linen. Tent area from 2.5 to 7 square meters. m. A decuria lived in it - 6-10 people, two of whom were constantly on guard. The tents of the Praetorian Guard and cavalry were large sizes. The camp was surrounded by a palisade, a wide and deep ditch and a rampart 6 meters high. There was a distance of 50 meters between the ramparts and the legionnaires' tents. This was done so that the enemy could not set fire to the tents. In front of the camp, an obstacle course was set up consisting of several countervailing lines and barriers made of sharpened stakes, wolf pits, trees with sharpened branches and intertwined, forming an almost impassable obstacle.
Leggings have been worn by Roman legionnaires since ancient times. They were abolished under the emperors. But the centurions continued to wear them. The leggings had the color of the metal from which they were made, and were sometimes painted.
In the time of Mary the banners were silver, in the times of the empire they were gold. The panels were multi-colored: white, blue, red, purple.
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Rice. 7 – Weapons. |
A cavalry sword is one and a half times longer than an infantry sword. The swords were double-edged, the handles were made of bone, wood, and metal.
A pilum is a heavy spear with a metal tip and shaft. Serrated tip. The shaft is wooden. The middle part of the spear is wrapped tightly turn to turn with cord. One or two tassels were made at the end of the cord. The tip of the spear and the shaft were made of soft forged iron, before the iron was made of bronze. The pilum was thrown at the enemy's shields. The spear that dug into the shield pulled it to the bottom, and the warrior was forced to throw the shield, since the spear weighed 4-5 kg and dragged along the ground, as the tip and rod were bent.
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Rice. 8 – Scutums (shields). |
Shields (scutums) acquired a semi-cylindrical shape after the war with the Gauls in the 4th century. BC e. Scutums were made from light, well-dried, tightly fitted aspen or poplar boards, covered with linen, and on top with cowhide. The edge of the shield was bordered with a strip of metal (bronze or iron) and the strips were placed in a cross across the center of the shield. In the center was a pointed plaque (umbon) - the top of the shield. The legionnaires kept a razor, money and other small things in it (it was removable). On the inside there was a belt loop and a metal bracket, the owner's name and the number of the century or cohort were written. The skin could be dyed: red or black. The hand was inserted into the belt loop and grasped by the bracket, thanks to which the shield hung tightly on the hand.
The helmet in the center is earlier, the one on the left is later. The helmet had three feathers 400 mm long; in ancient times, helmets were bronze, later iron. The helmet was sometimes decorated with snakes on the sides, which at the top formed a place where feathers were inserted. In later times, the only decoration on the helmet was the crest. On the top of the head the Roman helmet had a ring into which a strap was threaded. The helmet was worn on the back or lower back, like a modern helmet.
Roman velites were armed with javelins and shields. The shields were round, made of wood or metal. The velites were dressed in tunics; later (after the war with the Gauls) all legionnaires also began to wear trousers. Some of the velites were armed with slings. The slingers had bags for stones hanging on their right side, over their left shoulder. Some velites may have had swords. Shields (wooden) were covered with leather. The color of clothing could be any color except purple and its shades. Velites could wear sandals or walk barefoot. Archers appeared in the Roman army after the defeat of the Romans in the war with Parthia, where the consul Crassus and his son died. The same Crassus who defeated the troops of Spartacus at Brundisium.
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Fig 12 – Centurion. |
The centurions had silver-plated helmets, did not have shields and carried the sword on the right side. They had greaves and, as a distinctive sign on the armor, on the chest they had an image of a grapevine rolled into a ring. During the times of manipular and cohort formation of legions, centurions were on the right flank of centuries, maniples, cohorts. The cloak is red, and all legionnaires wore red cloaks. Only the dictator and senior commanders had the right to wear purple cloaks.
Animal skins served as saddles. The Romans did not know stirrups. The first stirrups were rope loops. The horses were not shod. Therefore, the horses were very taken care of.
References
1. Military history. Razin, 1-2 t. t., Moscow, 1987
2. On Seven Hills (Essays on Culture ancient Rome). M.Yu. German, B.P. Seletsky, Yu.P. Suzdal; Leningrad, 1960.
3. Hannibal. Titus Livy; Moscow, 1947.
4. Spartak. Raffaello Giovagnoli; Moscow, 1985.
5. Flags of the world. K.I. Ivanov; Moscow, 1985.
6. History of ancient Rome, under the general editorship of V.I. Kuzishchina; Moscow, 1981.
Publication:
Library of the Military Historical Commission - 44, 1989
At the beginning of the Empire, around 1 AD, the Roman legion consisted of approximately 5,000 heavy infantry and a small cavalry unit of 120 horsemen. Typically, Roman legions also had equal numbers of archers, cavalry, or light infantry attached as support troops, recruited from the population of the Roman provinces. In contrast, recruitment for legionnaires took place exclusively among Roman citizens. The legions also accompanied convoys with food and tools for the construction of protected camps, and thus the total number of the legion reached about 11,000 people.
Weapon
Legionnaires' equipment included not only a variety of weapons and armor, but also tools and everyday utensils. The soldiers mainly had two types of attack weapons: numerous spears, the so-called pilums, and the gladius, a short sword.
Pilum
The length of the Imperial era pilum was approximately 2.10 meters, 90 cm of which was an iron tip. In battle, pilums were thrown towards enemy battle formations from a fairly short distance. Caesar describes the effect of using pilums as follows: “...One spear often pierced two overlapping shields, binding them together, (...). Since such a weight was now placed on their hands that they could not fight normally, (...) they got rid of their shields and preferred to fight without protection.”
“Gladius, Roman short sword (original find and copy)”
The legionnaire's sword, the gladius, was a double-edged weapon, approximately 60 cm long and 5 cm wide. It was usually used for close-range strikes. Later, during the height of the Empire, the legions began to use the spatha, a long sword, primarily as a club.
Roman shield in action
The scutum, a large Roman shield with curved edges to better protect the body, was used as protective equipment. It was made of thin wood fitted and joined together, reinforced with an iron or bronze frame. There was a knob in the center of the shield, and a handle on the opposite side. The front part was covered with leather and decorated with silver and bronze ornaments in the shape of lightning bolts of Jupiter.
The shields of the cohorts had different colors to make it easier to distinguish them on the battlefield. In addition, the names of the owner and centurion of the cohort were inscribed on the shields. During forced marches, the shield was carried on a belt over the shoulder.
Cloth
Soldiers wore a linen underwear (underwear) and a short-sleeved woolen tunic on top that went down to the knees in front. The men's legs were left bare, here protection was sacrificed for greater mobility. Wearing trousers (Latin bracae) was considered alien and unbecoming for Roman men, although in cold regions legionnaires were allowed to wear long drawers made of wool or leather that ended just below the knee.
Legionnaires' footwear was of high quality and skillful workmanship, mainly using heavy sandals with multi-layered soles. Sandals were tied with straps in the center of the tibia, and legionnaires could add wool or fur to their cold clothes.
Armor
Armor has changed over the years. Different types of armor could be used at the same time. At the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, legionnaires mostly wore chain mail. Later, they also protected themselves in battle with the help of the “loric segmentata” - an elaborate armor consisting of many overlapping metal plates, which were connected to each other by leather straps from the inside so as not to affect mobility. The shoulders were also protected by various kinds of curved plates, and the back and chest were covered with a connected breastplate. The armor could be assembled into one piece and laced at the front, and at the same time it was still easy to disassemble into individual segments for cleaning and repair.
“Legionaries around 70 AD.”
Beginning in the year 100, scale armor appeared, which at first was used only by elite soldiers from the Praetorian Guard. Legionnaires received similar equipment much later. All three types of armor were still in use during the reign of Emperor Constantine the Great.
The head was protected by a specially designed helmet, which consisted of a metal dome with attached protection for the neck and face. There were cheek protection on both sides of the helmet. Legionnaires wrapped a scarf around their necks to prevent the iron elements of the helmet from damaging the skin.
Centurion Helmet
Around the waist they wore a wide belt, in some cases exquisitely decorated with metal plates. An apron made of leather straps with riveted plates was attached to the front. It dangled freely when moving, and was presumably primarily used as a decorative element, although in certain circumstances it could provide a little additional protection to the lower abdomen and genitals. A dagger, the so-called “pugio,” was attached to the belt on the side.
“Work on the construction of fortifications on Trajan’s Column”
Roman hatchet
Field equipment
In addition to weapons and armor, each legionnaire had an ax on his belt, the sharp blade of which was protected by a leather sheath. A legionnaire's standard equipment also included a saw, a wicker basket for digging, a piece of rope or a long leather belt, and a sickle. During the campaign, the legionnaire carried these items on a special stick called “pilum murale”. In the later years of the Empire, part of this equipment was loaded onto wagons in convoys and accompanied by troops. The heaviest and most cumbersome items of legionnaire equipment were the so-called “papilio” - leather tents. They were transported on hinnies along with two millstones for grinding grain.
Centurion equipment
As a rule, the centurion had a bright, extraordinary appearance, allowing him to stand out from the crowd of ordinary people. He wore a shirt with leather, chain mail, or scale armor and metal shoulder guards, as well as an ornate belt. Below the waist, the centurions wore a skirt with double pleats, similar to a kilt, and metal shin guards were attached to their legs. A cloak with elegant folds hung from his left shoulder. The sword also hung on the left.
MUNICIPAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
"POLITICAL DEPARTMENT SECONDARY SCHOOL"
NIKOLAEVSKY MUNICIPAL DISTRICT OF VOLGOGRAD REGION
Research
on this topic:"Clothing and weapons of a Roman legionnaire"
Ancient world history
Completed:
5th grade student
Volkov Evgeniy
Supervisor:
Volkova L.N.,
history and social studies teacher
With. Political Department - 2016
Content
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..2
1. The concept of “Roman legionnaire”……………………………………………………4
2. Composition of the Roman army…………………………………………………….....5
2.1. Legionnaires……………………………………………………………………………….5
2.2. Command staff…………………………………………………………...8
3. Clothes of Roman legionnaires……………………………………………………………10
4. Types of weapons used in the Roman army……………………………...16
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………….20
List of sources and literature……………………………………………………………22
Appendix…………………………………………………………………………………24
Introduction
In the history lessons of the Ancient World, we became acquainted with the conquests of the Roman state. Thanks to these conquests, the state inIV. BC. and the beginningIAD turned into a huge Roman Empire, which included the entire Mediterranean coast, modern territory Western Europe, North Africa, Asia Minor. There is evidence that the Romans more than once tried to conquer the first Slavs, whom they called “Vends”.
The “great” empire was able to achieve fame and status only thanks to its loyal and brave warriors, who bore on their shoulders all the burdens of long, distant and dangerous campaigns.
Hiking means leaving families for a long time, living in the field, eating what grew and lived in these territories. What about clothes? After all, according to the territory, the climate changed, which means that the clothing of a Roman soldier should be:
Convenient for long hikes;
Have means of protection in case of cold weather or, if exposed to the rays of the hot sun, protect from the scorching heat;
- and the most important thing - reliable protection against enemy attacks.
In addition, I was interested in the question of the armament of legionnaires. The ancient world knew the capabilities of metal processing, but did not know firearms. This means that the weapons of the Romans were iron products.
Relevance of the work: The points that interested me in the organization of the Roman army made me want to learn more about the clothing and weapons of the Roman legionnaires, since the history textbook only talks about campaigns and conquests. Having collected information, I can introduce my classmates to these interesting facts and visualize to them what a Roman legionnaire looked like.
Research problem is the opportunity to get acquainted not only with the conquests of the Roman army, but also with appearance Roman soldiers and with the types of weapons with which they achieved victories for the empire.
An object of this work: Roman legionnaire, his appearance.
Item of this work: clothing and weapons of a Roman legionnaire.
Purpose of the study: learn about the appearance of a Roman legionnaire and his weapons.
To achieve the goal, a number oftasks:
Define the concept of “Roman legionnaire”;
Consider the composition of the Roman army;
Study the clothing and weapons of a Roman legionnaire.
Research methods:
theoretical: literature analysisand sourceson the research problem;
practical: collection andregistration of the received information in a folder - portfolio.
Stages of work on the project:
Studying the literature and collecting the necessary information on the chosen topic;
Analysis and structuring;
Folder design - portfolio;
Presentation of the finished work.
Practical significance: This work can be presented as additional information in Ancient History lessons, as well as in a school design competition.
Project product: newspaper "Roman Legionnaire".
1. The concept of “Roman legionnaire”
The Roman legionnaire takes its name from the name of the branch of troops in Ancient Rome.
Legion (lat. legio, gen. legionis), (lat. legio, gen. legionis, from lego - collecting, recruiting) - the main organizational unit in the army . The number of the legion at different times was about 3-8 thousand people. Initially, the legion was the name given to the entire Roman army, which was a collection of armed citizens of Rome. This Roman "militia" (this is the original meaning of the word) was assembled only in times of war and for military training. The legion was assembled according to the curiat principle, each clan ( ) fielded 100 warriors ( ) and 10 horsemen, so the total number of the legion was 3,300 people. A warrior who joined the army was called -legionnaire (Fig. 1).
Fig.1
Roman horseman of the 1st century AD e.
He sits in the saddle without stirrups, since they haven’t been invented yet
2. Composition of the Roman army
2.1. Legionnaires
At the beginning of its existence, Rome was a city in which every man was a warrior. Citizens served either as infantry or cavalry. Everything depended on the financial situation. Wealthier people mounted horses, and poor people became heavily armed foot soldiers.
Subsequently, the military organization of the republic began to be based on universal conscription. Citizens from 17 to 46 years of age were obliged, according to their centuries list, to attend parades or go on a campaign; sometimes, in wartime and for senior officers, service was extended to 50 years. After 45 to 60, they served in fortresses. Persons who participated in 20 campaigns in the infantry and 10 in the cavalry were exempt from service. Service life also changed over time.
Physical defects, as well as the performance of magistrate and priestly positions, were exempted from military service. An attempt to avoid military service without legitimate reasons entailed early time sale into slavery, and later - large fines and confiscation of property. Desertion, flight from the battlefield, etc. constituted special military crimes and were almost always punished by exile or death.
At the beginning of the conquests, Rome collected troops by rank based on the qualifications presented (i.e., the presence of property and monetary status).
But, pafter the victorious wars of the IV-III centuries. BC. All the peoples of Italy came under the rule of Rome. To keep them in obedience, the Romans gave some peoples more rights, others less, sowing mutual distrust and hatred between them. It was the Romans who formulated the law of “divide and conquer.”
And for this, numerous troops were needed. Thus, the Roman army consisted of:
a) legions in which the Romans themselves served, consisting of heavy and light infantry and cavalry assigned to them;
b) Italian allies and allied cavalry (after granting citizenship rights to the Italians who joined the legion);
c) auxiliary troops recruited from the inhabitants of the provinces.
The main tactical unit was the legion.
The legion was divided into maniples (Latin for a handful), centuries (hundreds) and decuria (tens), which resembled modern companies, platoons, and squads (Fig. 2).
Fig.2
Handle structure:
Rice. 3
Light Infantry -velites (literally - fast, agile) walked ahead of the legion in loose formation and started a battle. In case of failure, she retreated to the rear and flanks of the legion. There were 1200 people in total.
First line of the legion -hastati (from the Latin “hasta” - spear) - spearmen, 120 people in a maniple.
Second line -principles (first) – 120 people in the manipula.
Third line -triarii (third) – 60 people in a manipula. The triarii were the most experienced and tested fighters. When the ancients wanted to say that the decisive moment had come, they said: “It has come to the triarii.”
Rice. 4
1 – Roman triarium, 2 – Roman hastat, 3 – Roman velite.
Each maniple had two centuries. In the century of hastati or principles there were 60 people, and in the century of triarii there were 30 people.
The legion was assigned 300 horsemen, making up 10 turmas. The cavalry covered the flanks of the legion.
2.2. Command staff
During the republic, the consuls commanded, dividing the troops in half, but when it was necessary to unite, they commanded alternately (Fig. 5). If there was a serious threat, then a dictator was chosen, to whom the chief of the cavalry was subordinate, as opposed to the consuls. The dictator had unlimited rights. Each commander had assistants who were entrusted with separate parts of the army.
Individual legions were commanded by tribunes (Fig. 5). There were six of them per legion. Each pair commanded for two months, replacing each other every day, then giving way to the second pair, etc. The centurions were subordinate to the tribunes. Each century was commanded by a centurion. The commander of the first hundred was the commander of the maniple. Centurions had the right to punish a soldier for misconduct.
In tsarist times, the commander was the king.
Fig.5
1 – Roman tribune, 2 – Roman standard bearer, 3 – Roman consul.
So, having examined the composition of the Roman army, I learned that the Roman army was numerous with a complex military organization. Each category of troops had its own specific type of activity. And having become acquainted with the illustration, we can confidently believe that the type of their clothing and weapons were also different. We'll explore this in the next chapter.
3. Clothes of Roman legionnaires
The military affiliation of the soldiers was determined not by the uniform - the soldier's tunic and cloak differed little from civilian clothing - but by the military belt ("balteus") and shoes ("kaligi").
"Balteus" could take the form of a simple belt worn at the waist and decorated with silver or bronze overlays, or two crossed belts tied at the hips. The time of appearance of such crossed belts is unknown. They could have appeared closer to the reign of Augustus, when arose additional protection in the form of leather strips on the sleeves and waist (“pterugs”) (metal overlays for such strips were found near Kalkriese, where Var was defeated). Probably, during the reign of Tiberius, blackening on silver, lead or copper began to be widely used in the manufacture of decorative belt overlays with a complex mosaic pattern. Such a belt was evidence of military status. The sources describe the soldiers as “armed and belted people.” Deprivation of "balteus" meant exclusion from the military class for a soldier. The belt was taken from the soldier who had dishonored himself. In Rome in 69 AD. There was a case when some jokers, using sharply sharpened knives, cut off the belts of several soldiers in the crowd. When the soldiers realized what had happened, they flew into an indescribable rage and killed several civilians, including the father of one of the legionnaires.
Military shoes"kaligi" was another important attribute of belonging to the soldier class (Fig. 6). The exact time of their introduction is unknown. They were the standard footwear for Roman soldiers from the reign of Augustus until the beginning of the 2nd century. AD These were strong sandals. The creaking of nailed soles indicated the presence of soldiers as well as the jingling of their belts. Archaeological finds throughout the empire indicate a high degree of standardization in the form of "kalig". This suggests that the models for them, and possibly other items of military equipment, were approved by the emperors themselves.
About the color of the militarytunic there was a lot of controversy (Fig. 7). Mentions of centurions paraded in white robes may indicate the use of canvas tunics. It is also likely that in this case the color of the ridges and “pterugs” was indicated. It is likely that centurions also wore woolen tunics dyed red, while lower-ranking officers wore white tunics.
Most legionnaires of the Empire period wore heavyarmor , although some types of troops did not use armor at all. Caesar used legionnaires without armor ("expediti") fighting as "anti-signani". These were lightly armed legionnaires who began skirmishing at the beginning of the battle or served as reinforcements for the cavalry. The relief from the Legionnaires' headquarters building in Mainz shows two legionnaires fighting in close formation. They are armed with shields and spears, but have no protective armor - even heavily armed legionnaires could fight "expediti".
Rice. 6 "Kaligi" and leggings (greaves)Fig.7 Roman toga and tunic.
The sandals had no socks and the leather was red.
Having looked at Fig. 9 where showncenturion, we see that he is wearing what at first glance appears to be a tunic. However, the cuts at the arms and hips indicate that this is a chain mail shirt (“lorica hamata”), the cuts of which are necessary in order to facilitate the movement of the warrior. Many of these monuments depict details in the form of rings. Chain mail was probably the type of armor that was widely used by the Romans. In the period we are considering, chain mail shirts had short sleeves or no sleeves at all and could fall much lower than the hips. Most legionnaires wore chain mail with additional chain mail pads on the shoulders. Depending on the length and number of rings (up to 30,000), such chain mail weighed 9-15 kg. Chain mail with shoulder pads could weigh up to 16 kg. Usually chain mail was made of iron, but there are cases when bronze was used to make rings. Scale armor (“lorica squamata”) was another common type, cheaper and easier to manufacture, but inferior to chain mail in strength and elasticity.
Such scale armor was worn over a shirt with sleeves, probably made of canvas lined with wool. Such clothing helped soften blows and prevented metal armor press into the legionnaire's body. To such clothing they often added “pterugs” - canvas or leather protective strips that covered the upper parts of the arms and legs. Such stripes could not protect against serious injuries. Until the end of the 1st century. AD centurions could wear greaves, and even then, probably not in all cases (Fig. 6).
Rice. 8 Fig.9
Helmet
Legionnaires used various types of helmets. During the Republic, bronze and sometimes iron helmets of the “Montefortino” type became widespread, which became the traditional helmets of legionnaires from the 4th century. BC. They consisted of a single cup-shaped piece with a very small rear visor and side plates that covered the ears and sides of the face. Later versions of helmets, including the so-called “Kulus” type, were used until the end of the 1st century. AD They were equipped with large plates to protect the neck.
The legionnaires' helmets were quite massive. The wall thickness reached 1.5 - 2 mm, and the weight was about 2 - 2.3 kg. The helmets and their side plates had felt pads, and some helmets were designed to leave a small space between the head and the canopy to soften the blow. The Montefortino helmets were equipped with wide side plates that completely covered the ears, but the new Gallic Imperial type helmets already had cutouts for the ears. True, with the exception of those cases where helmets were custom-made for a soldier, the side plates could partially cover the legionnaire’s ears. The side plates covered the sides of the face well, but could limit peripheral vision, and the open front of the face became a target for the enemy.
Fig.10 
Fig.11
To attach the comb to the helmets, two holes were provided in which special holders were fixed. The crests were most likely worn only for parades and were rarely used in battle. The helmet itself was worn only before battle, but during the campaign it was hung on leather straps on the warrior’s chest.
Fig.12
Of all the uniforms of Roman soldiers, I would like to highlight the clothing of the Roman velite (Fig. 12). These warriors walked ahead of the entire Roman army and brought the fight to themselves. The goal of the velites was to throw darts at the enemy and quickly retreat behind the backs of well-protected infantry. They did not wear armor or chain mail; for protection they had a simple helmet and a round light . Some sources mention velites wearing wolf skins over their helmets so that their centurions could identify their soldiers as they retreated back.Probably, from the head of a wolf was a symbol of veneration of the god Mars. This god in Ancient Rome was not only the god of war, but was also considered the guardian of fields and herds from pests and wolves.
As for long hikes with climate change, in cold weather the legionnaire wore a cloak-cape with a hood.It is known that different cloaks were used for different occasions, and some of them were defined as “military” only. For example, soldiers wore heavy military raincoats in winter, but wore light raincoats in summer. The soldiers did not take off their raincoats during lunch, so as not to expose their legs. INAll legionnaires wore red cloaks. Only the dictator and senior commanders had the right to wear purple cloaks.
There were also pants.They were worn tucked into boots.The pants were mostly dark in color: gray or chocolate brown.
In the 2nd century, the wearing of boots spread. Along with the boots came socks.
There were a kind of tights in which the legs turned into socks.
Boots with laces on the instep became very popular footwear in the 3rd century.
Thus, having examined the clothing of a Roman legionnaire, we can conclude that the warrior’s clothing on a campaign consisted of a tunic, armor or chain mail, a special belt and leather sandals. IN winter time a cloak with a hood was thrown on, trousers or gaiters were put on, and boots were put on the feet. The legionnaire's head was protected by a helmet during the battle. Such a small amount of clothing was of strategic importance - a warrior must move quickly and easily during battle. But still, the bulk of them were weapons; they were always with the soldiers.
4. Types of weapons used in the Roman army
From time immemorialshield The legionnaire had an oval curved scutum. Its origin is not entirely known; some researchers attributed its appearance to the Sabines, others to the Samnites. Be that as it may, at the beginning of the 1st century. the outlines of the scutum change somewhat: it becomes rectangular, but with rounded corners. Later, apparently in the last quarter of the 1st century, the corners of the shield become straight.
The scutum was made from light aspen or poplar boards and covered first with linen and then with cowhide, the edges were upholstered with copper or iron, and in the middle on the outside it had a metal convex plate - umbo. In the recess of this lining on the inside of the shield, a warrior could store small items, such as money, etc. The outer side of the lining could be decorated with chasing or applied silver. Sometimes it depicted the personal emblem (amulet) of the owner of the shield. On the inside, there are records concerning the identity of the owner of the shield: his name, legion number, maybe century, etc.The weight of the shield was no less than 5.5 kg.
The surface of the shield was decorated with drawings. Zodiac signs could be found among the images. Most likely, this sign denoted the astrological cycle in which the legion or auxiliary cohort was formed or the emperor who created them was born. The most famous image - lightning and spindles of Jupiter - most likely belongs to the Praetorian cohorts.
During the hike and in the camp, to protect the shields from moisture, which had a destructive effect on the skin and wood, they used leather cases, which were filmed before the battle. Josephus describes how, under the walls of besieged Jerusalem, the future Emperor Titus staged a ceremony for distributing salaries and food to soldiers: “According to the custom accepted in such cases, the army marched out with open shields, which were usually covered with covers, and in full armor. The surroundings of the city sparkled with a bright shine of gold and silver.” The ceremony lasted four whole days and made quite a strong impression on the besieged.
It must be said that the shield was used not only as cover from enemy attacks, but also as an offensive weapon. When training soldiers, they practiced direct strikes with the central convex pad of the shield, designed to throw the enemy off balance, as well as strikes with the edge of the shield.
TOoffensive weapons infantry included swords, pilums and throwing spears.
Roman sword of the imperial period (gladius) originates from a slightly longer Spanish sword (gladius hispaniensis) than the Roman one. After the Punic Wars, when the Iberian Peninsula was conquered, the Romans took advantage of the secrets of local gunsmiths, as a result of which their legions received these excellent weapons.
Gladius sword , the name of which in our time has passed on to the gladiolus flower, similar in shape, in the first half of the 1st century still had a long (50–56 cm) tapering blade. Later, the shape of the sword underwent some changes: both edges of its blade became parallel, and its pointed part became shorter. The total length of the blade decreased to 44–55 cm.
At the beginning of the 1st century. Legionnaires wore a sling over their left shoulder, on which the sheath of the sword was attached. Thus, the sword was located on the right, and the legionnaire could grab it without changing the position of the shield, which should always cover it as completely as possible.
In addition to the sword, the legionnaire hadcombat dagger (pugio). It was worn on the belt on the left side. Judging by the figures depicted on Trajan's Column, by the end of the 1st century. The dagger was most likely no longer used by the legionnaires. But officers could wear it.
From about the 4th century. BC e. Legionnaires served as throwing weaponspilums (pilum) - a type of throwing spear. Each legionnaire had two of them. Initially, one of them was lighter and intended for throwing over a longer distance. After the 80s I century n. e. Only heavy pilums began to be used.
The impact force of a skillfully thrown heavy pilum was quite strong: it could pierce the enemy’s shield. Therefore, the tactics of the legionnaires were based on the fact that they threw pilums at the enemy’s shields. The heavy tip got stuck, became bent from the force of the blow (soft metal was used), and the shaft pulled the enemy’s shield down. Then the Romans, with swords in their hands, attacked the opponents, who could no longer take full advantage of the shields with pilums stuck into them and most often threw the shield to the side, remaining without cover.
Traditionalthrowing weapon : sling, bow, dart - were the weapons of foreign warriors who served Rome.
The slingers, usually recruited in the Balearic Islands, had weaponsPrasha - double folded belt. Stones or lead bullets cast in the shape of an acorn were used for throwing.
The armament of the triarii, hastati and principles was the same: a shield, a sword, and only instead of pilums they used long spears - hasts.
The velites had a sword, javelins and a round shield (parma) about 90 cm in diameter. The darts, "hasta velitaris", were a smaller copy of the pilum; their iron part was 25 - 30 cm, and the wooden shaft was two cubits (approx. 90 cm) long and about a finger thick.
Thus, one can imagine the weight of combat equipment that a Roman legionnaire had to carry.
On the march, this weight also increased due to his luggage, which included cooking utensils, a bag of provisions, and spare clothes. All this property, the weight of which could exceed 13 kg, was placed in a leather bag with ropes and carried using a T-shaped pole on the shoulder. If necessary, the legionnaire also had to carry all the equipment for earthworks. This included a pickaxe, an axe, a saw, a chain, a leather belt and a basket for carrying earth. During the time of Julius Caesar, he made sure that a certain part of the legionnaires during the campaign were not burdened with a load and could quickly react in the event of an enemy attack.So, the weapons of a Roman warrior are not only military weapons, but also everything that a warrior needs to protect his body, and everything that he needs to survive on a long, long march (Appendix).
Conclusion
For many centuries, the Roman army was rightfully considered one of the strongest in the world. Moreover, its combat effectiveness did not decline, despite any political conflicts. The main role, of course, was played by soldiers - legionnaires who were ready to sacrifice themselves in the interests of the state. But a good warrior must correspond to his position, i.e. his military organization, weapons and clothing should be his assistants in military affairs.
The problem of this study was getting to know not only the Roman warrior as a conqueror, but also getting to know his appearance and the weapons with which he achieved victory for the empire.
Based on the goals and objectives, it was determined that the legionnaire received his name from the name of the organization of the Roman army - the legion.
The legion was divided into maniples (handfuls), centuries (hundreds), decurii (tens). It was also divided into warriors - legionnaires and command staff. The legionnaires' troops consisted of velites, who went first and invited the battle to themselves, hastati - spearmen, principles and, the most experienced warriors, triarii.
But the main objective of the study was to study the clothing and weapons of the Roman legionnaire. Expanding this problem, it was found that:
The main everyday clothing was the tunic;
A military belt - "balteus" - was worn around the waist;
The Roman soldiers of Septimius Severus looked little different from the soldiers of Augustus who lived two centuries earlier.
In the 3rd century, the Roman Empire experienced a period of political, military and financial turmoil. During the fifty years that elapsed between the assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 and the rise of Diocletian in 284, almost thirty emperors came to power, of whom only three died a natural death.
The straightforwardness of the “soldier emperors,” many of whom came from the rank and file, was reflected in the military uniform the Roman army, which during this period for the first time achieved noticeable uniformity.
In the 3rd century, the long-sleeved tunic became widespread. This tunic spread thanks to the influence of numerous German mercenaries who served in the Roman army.
| 1 |
German scout, early 3rd century. |
| 2 |
Germanic warrior, Thorsberg, 3rd century. |
| 3 |
Palmyra scout. III century. |
| Information | |
In Roman icons of the 3rd century and later, Roman soldiers were depicted wearing a tunic with long narrow sleeves, a cloak and trousers.
It can be assumed that the wearing of northern European clothing in the Roman army first spread among the soldiers of auxiliary units, then the imperial bodyguards began to dress in this way, and, finally, all legionnaires serving on the northern border of the empire began to wear barbarian clothing.
| 1 |
Constantius II was the third son of Constantine the Great (306-337). At first he ruled the Eastern Empire, but by 358 he had concentrated power over both parts of the Roman Empire. |
| 2 |
Protector Sacri Lateris, imperial guard, mid-4th century. |
| 3 |
Horseman, Equites Catafractarii, mid-4th century. |
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Information: “Military clothing of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 ne" |
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Emperor Caracalla (Marcus Aurelius Anonius Bassian), according to eyewitnesses, continued to wear Germanic clothing even in Syria and Mesopotamia.
The Roman army had a large number of irregular units, whose warriors were called numerii and cuneii.
The latter were federati (foederati) - German settlers who received land on the territory of the Empire in exchange for an obligation to perform military service.
All irregular units were led by national commanders, usually chiefs, and wore traditional clothing for their tribe. As a result, such units often became trendsetters in new fashions and trends in the imperial army.
| 1 |
Emperor Alexander Severus, (222-235). |
| 2 |
Emperor Caracalla (211-217) |
| 3 |
Emperor Probus (276-282) |
| Information: “Military clothing of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 ne" | |
When the Danubian army of Septimius Severus marched on Rome, the civilian population, who had only seen these legionnaires on the column of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius, was horrified by how the soldiers looked (Dio, LXXV.2.6).
Indeed, the soldiers looked like real barbarians: long-sleeved tunics and trousers (bgasae), which for centuries were considered completely unacceptable clothing for the Romans.
Among other complaints leveled against unpopular emperors like Elagabalus and Komodo was their preference for long-sleeved tunics.
Documents from Egypt written in Greek (the official language of the Eastern Empire) indicate the wearing of various tunics.
The military tunic, known as the sticharion, was decorated with colored stripes (clavi). In addition, the dalmatica tunic had long sleeves, although, judging by the documents, it was worn less often than the sticharion. The name Dalmatic leaves no doubt that this tunic originates from Dalmatia. The soldier emperors who ruled Rome in the 3rd century preferred to wear just such a tunic.
The vast majority of tunics in manuscript illustrations are red or white. Green and blue tunics are much less common. It is generally accepted that the tunics of ordinary legionnaires were white, while the centurions wore red tunics.
| Army of the North | |
| 1 |
Legionnaire, 193. |
| 2 |
Praetorian Guard, 193. |
| 3 |
Roman Falangist, 21 |
| Information: “Military clothing of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 ne" | |
Another item of clothing that should be mentioned is the camisia. Apparently, this was the name of a tight-fitting linen shirt. The name of this shirt came into Latin from the Germanic language through the Gaulish language.
Later, the camisia was often worn by priests, but before that it was very popular among soldiers.
On the eastern borders of the Roman Empire, clothing decorated with embroidery, often made with gold or silver thread, was popular. Initially, the Romans despised such fashion as barbaric, but gradually this style of clothing became common for emperors, their court and bodyguards.
Some examples of military uniforms were very richly decorated. For example, Claudius Herculanus, an imperial horse guard under Aurelian (270-275), is depicted on his tomb wearing a tunic or cloak decorated with an image of a sun with rays. Apparently, this decoration is somehow connected with the cult of the sun god propagated by Aurelian. The design was obviously embroidered with gold thread, which gave it an impressive appearance.
| 1 |
Tribune of the auxiliary detachment, mid-3rd century. |
| 2 |
Vexillary of the auxiliary detachment, mid-3rd century. The reconstruction was carried out based on the findings at Dura-Europos. The vexillum is depicted in accordance with one found in Egypt and currently in the collection of the Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow. |
| 3 |
Centurion of the auxiliary detachment, mid-3rd century. |
| Information: “Military clothing of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 ne" | |
All Aurelian's guards could wear such a pattern. In general, the custom of that time was for the emperor to bestow expensive clothing on his supporters in order to emphasize his favor in particular and the greatness of the regime in general.
The rectangular cloak (sagum) was the most popular type of cloak among Roman legionaries for centuries. The image of this cloak is often found in the visual arts of that time.
But there were other versions of the cloak, some of which were used in the army. Among the alternatives, mention should be made of a cloak with a hood (paenula). This cloak was common in the early period, but by the end of the 2nd century its image almost completely disappears on military tombstones, although it continues to be found on the tombstones of civilians.
In addition, soldiers wearing penules are depicted on the wooden door of the Cathedral of St. Sabina in Rome, dating from the 5th century. It is possible that the penula was the cloak of the Praetorian Guard, since it is very often found on monuments dedicated to the guard. The temporary disappearance of these cloaks may be explained by the disbandment of the Praetorian Guard by Septimius Severus, who replaced the guard with a detachment of bodyguards recruited from provincial soldiers.
Later authors mention another cloak with a hood, the so-called birrus or byrus. In Diocletian's edict on prices this cloak appears as byrus Britannicus. Probably, the birrus also looked like a penula, but had an additional flap covering the neck, which made it different from the penula, which had to be worn with a scarf.
| 1 |
Centurion, III century. |
| 2 |
Mithraist, Hadrian's Wall, 3rd century. |
| 3 |
Sailor of the British fleet, 3rd century. |
| Information: “Military clothing of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 ne" | |
It is known that different cloaks were used for different occasions, and some of them were defined as “military” only. For example, Saturninus' soldiers wore heavy military cloaks in winter, but wore light cloaks in summer. Saturninus insisted that the soldiers do not take off their cloaks during lunch, so as not to expose their legs...
Emperor Aurelian (270-275) opposed silk and gold-trimmed clothing; he owned the aphorism: “The gods forbid fabric that costs as much as gold.” But at the same time, Aurelian did not forbid his soldiers to wear beautiful clothes, and his guard wore especially beautiful golden armor and dresses.
From the 3rd century onwards it is very difficult to determine whether a bare-legged man is depicted or a man in tight trousers. The paint on the sculptures has long faded and washed away, but the surviving frescoes and mosaics make it possible to determine that tight-fitting trousers were worn tucked into boots.
The pants were mostly dark in color: gray or chocolate brown. The biographies of the Augustans say that Emperor Alexander Severus wore white trousers instead of the scarlet trousers common at that time.
In addition, the legs could be protected with different types gaiter In mosaics and frescoes, gaiters were often worn by hunters and those who worked outdoors.
Among the list of required equipment and normal rations for Gaius Messiah (probably a mounted warrior) discovered at Masada, as well as a similar list for Quintus Julius Proclus, a mounted warrior from Alexandria, there is mention of such a garment as a fascia, that is, a winding. In both cases, windings are mentioned after boots, which suggests that these are windings or foot wraps.
| 1, 2 |
Soldiers, IV century. |
| 3 |
Senior military leader, IV century. |
| Information: “Military clothing of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 ne" | |
Gaiters were rectangular in shape and made of cloth or felt. The clasp below the knee and at the ankle is visible in most images.
In the 2nd century, the wearing of boots spread. Along with the boots came socks. A 3rd century tombstone from Apamea shows a soldier with his socks rolled up over the tops of his boots.
There were a kind of tights in which the legs turned into socks.
Boots with laces on the instep became very popular footwear in the 3rd century.
Until the end of the 3rd century, Roman warriors were rarely depicted wearing headdresses. Therefore, the words of Vegetius, written at the end of the 4th century, that in former times they always wore hats, are surprising. This was done for training so that the helmet put on the head before the fight did not seem too heavy.
| Cavalry from Luxor | |
| 1, 2 |
Commanders, III-IX centuries. |
| 3 |
Heavily armed mounted warrior, III-IV centuries. |
| Information: “Military clothing of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 ne" | |
This type of headdress was called a pillei and apparently came in two main varieties.
Externally, the pille was a low, borderless cylinder with a smooth or rough texture. The smooth texture obviously corresponded to leather or felt pills, and the rough texture corresponded to sheepskin.
The Edict of Diocletian speaks of pills. made from sheepskin. The Roman pilleum probably goes back to the Persian tiara.
Many warriors wore balaclavas, which softened blows to the head.
The Romans also used armored clothing - thoracomachus, which was an analogue of the medieval aketon.
According to modern reconstructors, thoracomachs were made from linen fabric stuffed with wool. If the thoracomach got wet, it became unpleasant to wear and took a long time to dry.
Ancient Rome was one of the greatest empires. An empire that conquered most of the then known world. This state had a tremendous influence on the entire further process of development of civilization, and the perfection of some structures and organizations of this country has not yet been surpassed.
We can safely say that from the moment of its inception, the words Roman Empire and the concepts of “order,” “organization,” and “discipline” became synonymous. This fully applies to the ancient Roman army, the legionnaires, who inspired awe and respect among the barbarian peoples...
A fully equipped and equipped fighter was armed with a sword (in Latin "gladius"), several darts ("plumbatae") or spears ("pila"). For protection, the legionnaires used a large rectangular shield (“scutum”). The battle tactics of the ancient Roman army were quite simple - before the start of the battle, the enemy was pelted with spears and darts, after which hand-to-hand combat began. And it was in such hand-to-hand battles, in which the Romans preferred to fight in a very dense formation, consisting of several rows, where the back rows pressed against the front ones, simultaneously supporting and pushing forward, that the advantages of the legionnaires’ sword were revealed, i.e. gladius
Gladius and spatha
The fact is that the gladius was an almost ideal weapon for working in tight formation: the total length of the weapon (not exceeding 60 centimeters) did not require any room to swing, and the sharpening of the blade itself made it possible to deliver both chopping and piercing blows (although preference was given to strong piercing blows). blows from behind a shield, which gave very good protection). Also, the gladiuses had two more undoubted advantages: they were all of the same type (speaking in modern terms- “serial”), so a legionnaire who lost his weapon in battle could use the weapon of a defeated comrade without any inconvenience. In addition, usually ancient Roman swords were made from fairly low-grade iron, so they were cheap to produce, and therefore difficult to manufacture similar weapons it was possible in very large quantities, which in turn led to an increase in the regular army.
A very interesting fact is that, according to historians, the gladius is not originally a Roman invention and was most likely borrowed from the tribes that at one time conquered the Iberian Peninsula. Around the 3rd century BC, the ancient Romans borrowed a straight short sword called Gladius Hispaniensis (i.e. “Spanish sword”) from barbarian tribes (presumably Gauls or Celts). The word gladius itself may well come from the Celtic “kladyos” (“sword”), although some experts believe that the term may also come from the Latin “clades” (“damage, wound”) or “gladii” (“stem”) ). But, one way or another, it was the Romans who “immortalized” this short sword.
Gladius is a double-edged sword with a wedge-shaped tip, used for piercing and cutting blows to the enemy. The durable hilt had a convex handle that could have indentations for the fingers. The strength of the sword was ensured either by batch forging: joining together several steel strips using blows, or by the diamond-shaped cross-section of the blade when manufactured from a single high-carbon steel billet. When manufactured by batch forging, a downward channel was located in the center of the sword.
Very often, the name of the owner was indicated on the swords, which was stamped on the blade or engraved.
Stabbing blows had a great effect during battles because puncture wounds, especially in the abdominal cavity, as a rule, were always fatal. But in some situations, cutting and slashing blows were applied with a gladius, as evidenced by Livy in his reports on the Macedonian wars, which speaks of the frightened soldiers of Macedonia when they saw the chopped bodies of soldiers.
Despite the main strategy of the infantrymen - to deliver stabbing blows to the stomach, during training they were aimed at gaining any advantage in battle, not excluding the possibility of hitting the enemy below the level of the shields, damaging the kneecaps with slashing blows.
There are four types of gladius.
Spanish gladius
Used no later than 200 BC. to 20 BC The length of the blade is approximately 60-68 cm. The length of the sword is approximately 75-85 cm. The width of the sword is approximately 5 cm. It was the largest and heaviest of the gladiuses. The earliest and longest of the gladiuses, it had a pronounced leaf-like shape. The maximum weight was about 1 kg, the standard weighed about 900 g with a wooden handle.
Gladius "Mainz"
Mainz was founded as a Roman permanent camp at Moguntiacum around 13 BC. This large camp provided the population base for the growing city around it. Sword making probably began in the camp and was continued in the city; for example, Gaius Gentlius Victor, a veteran of Legio XXII, used his demobilization bonus to start a business as a gladiarius, manufacturer and dealer of weapons. Swords made in Mainz were sold mainly to the north. The Mainz variation of the gladius was characterized by a small blade waist and a long tip. Blade length 50-55 cm. Sword length 65-70 cm. Blade width about 7 cm. Sword weight about 800 g. (with wooden handle). The Mainz-type gladius was intended primarily for stabbing. As for the chopping, if applied awkwardly, it could even damage the blade.
Gladius Fulham
The sword which gave the type its name was dug up from the Thames near Fulham and must therefore date from after the Roman occupation of Britain. This was after the invasion of Aulia Platius in 43 AD. It was used until the end of that same century. It is considered an intermediate link between the Mainz type and the Pompeii type. Some consider this a development of the Mainz type, or simply this type. The blade is slightly narrower than the Mainz type, the main difference being the triangular point. Blade length 50-55 cm. Sword length 65-70 cm. The blade width is approximately 6cm. The weight of the sword is about 700g. (with wooden handle).
Gladius "Pompeii"
Named in modern times after Pompeii, a Roman city in which many of its inhabitants died - despite the Roman navy's efforts to evacuate the people - which was destroyed by a volcanic eruption in 79 AD. Four examples of swords were found there. The sword has parallel blades and a triangular tip. It is the shortest of the gladiuses. It is worth noting that it is often confused with the spatha, which was a longer slashing weapon used by mounted auxiliaries. Unlike its predecessor, it was much better suited for cutting with the enemy, while its penetrating ability during a stabbing strike decreased. Over the years the Pompeii type has become longer and later versions are referred to as semi-spatas. Blade length 45-50cm. Sword length 60-65cm. The blade width is about 5cm. The weight of the sword is about 700g. (with wooden handle).
By the third century, even the Pompeii-type gladius was not effective enough.
The tactics of the legions became more defensive than offensive, as in previous centuries. There was an urgent need for longer swords, suitable for single combat or fighting in a relatively free formation. And then the Roman infantry armed themselves with the cavalry sword, known as the "spata".
A long sword invented by the Celts, but extensively used by Roman cavalry. Initially, the spatha was created and used by the Celts as a sword for infantrymen, which had a rounded edge and was intended for delivering slashing blows, but over time, having appreciated the edge of the gladius, intended for stabbing blows, the Celts sharpened the spatha, and the Roman horse warriors admired with this long sword, they took it into service. Due to the center of gravity shifted closer to the tip, this sword was ideal for horse battles.
The Roman spatha reached a weight of 2 kg, the width of the blade varied from 4 to 5 centimeters, and the length from approximately 60 to 80 centimeters. The handle of the Roman spatha was made in the same way as the gladius, made of wood and bone.
When the sword appeared in the Roman Empire, cavalry officers first began to arm themselves with it, then the entire cavalry changed their weapons, followed by auxiliary units that did not have a formation and participated in the battle more in a scattered form, that is, the battle with them was divided into fights. Soon the officers of the infantry units appreciated this sword, and over time they not only armed themselves with them, but also armed ordinary legionnaires. Of course, some legionnaires remained faithful to the gladius, but it soon completely faded into history, giving way to the more practical spatha.
Pugio
A dagger used by Roman soldiers as a sidearm. It is believed that the pugio was intended as a auxiliary weapon, but its exact combat use remains unclear. Attempts to identify the pugio as a utility knife are misleading because the blade shape is not suitable for this purpose. In any case, there were many knives of various shapes and sizes on Roman military installations, and therefore there was no need to use only the pugio for universal purposes. Officials of the Roman Empire wore ornate daggers while on duty at their workplaces. Some carried daggers secretly, for protection against unforeseen circumstances. In general, this dagger served as a weapon of murder and suicide; for example, the conspirators who dealt a fatal blow to Julius Caesar used pugio for this.
Ultimately the pugio was derived from Spanish originals of various types. However, by the early 1st century AD, replicas of this Roman dagger typically had a wide blade, which could be leaf-shaped. There could also be an alternative blade shape with the tip narrowing towards the tip of the wide blades from approximately half the length of the blade. The blades range in size from 18 cm to 28 cm in length and 5 cm or more in width. The central rib stretched the entire length of each side of the blade, either located in the middle or forming an extension in both directions. The tang was wide and flat, the handle linings were riveted onto it, as well as onto the shoulders of the blade. The pommel was originally round in shape, but by the early 1st century AD it had acquired a trapezoidal shape, often topped with three decorative rivets.
The pugio had its own sheath. During the second quarter of the 1st century AD, three types of scabbard were used. All had four rings for fastenings and a convex extension to which a large rivet was attached. Judging by the examples of wearing that have survived to us, the two lower rings were not used to secure the sheath. The first type was made from curved metal (usually iron) plates. These plates were located on the front and back sides of the scabbard and seemed to seal the wooden “lining”. The front part was usually richly decorated with brass or silver inlay, as well as red, yellow or green enamel. A feature of these scabbards was the free movement of ring pendants attached by riveted forked fasteners. Modern reconstructions These scabbards, which are made of copper plates secured with rivets, are not correct; examples of this type have never been found. This common error occurs due to the misinterpretation of the line drawing in the archaeological report of the type "A" iron scabbard, which was simply decorated with silver inlay and decorative rivets.
The second type of scabbard was made of wood and, presumably, covered with leather. Metal plates (almost always iron) were attached to the front of such sheaths. This plate was made quite smooth and richly decorated with inlay with silver (sometimes tin) and enamel. The pendant rings resembled small Roman military buckles and were hinged to the sides of the case. The third type (the "frame type") was made of iron and consisted of a pair of curved runners that ran together and flared at the lower end of the scabbard to form a spherical end. The runners were connected by two horizontal stripes in the upper and middle parts of the scabbard.
Gasta
The main type of infantry spear in ancient Rome, although at different times the name ghast meant different types spears, for example, the Roman poet Ennius, around the 3rd century BC, mentions hastu in his works as a designation for a throwing spear, which actually had a generally accepted meaning at that time. Following the modern judgment of historians, it was initially customary to arm legionnaires with heavy spears, which are now commonly called ghasts. At a later time, heavy spears were replaced with lighter darts - pilums. Ghasts are divided into three types, each of which can be safely called a separate type of spear:
1. A heavy infantry spear intended exclusively for close combat.
2. A shortened spear, which was used both as a melee weapon and as a throwing weapon.
3. A lightweight dart intended exclusively for throwing.
Until the 3rd century BC, the ghasta was in service with heavy infantry soldiers who marched on the front line. These soldiers were called so, in honor of the spear with which they went into battle - hastati, although later the spear went out of general use, the warriors continued to be called hastati. Despite the fact that the hastu was replaced by a pilum for ordinary soldiers, the heavy spear remained in service with the principles and triarii, but this also lasted until the beginning of the 1st century BC. There was light infantry (velites), which did not have a formation order, which was always armed with light throwing ghasts (hasta velitaris).
The length of the ghast was approximately 2 m, of which the lion's share was taken by the shaft (a completely different ratio compared to the pilum), which was approximately 170 cm long and was made mainly of ash. The tip was initially forged from bronze, but later bronze was replaced by iron (as in many other cases associated with weapons in the ancient Roman army), the length of the tip averaged 30 cm. Senior soldier ranks: beneficiaries, frumentaries, speculators, who often performed special assignments, had spears of a special shape, emphasizing their status. The tips of their spears were decorated with iron rings. It is known that the Romans had a special military award - a golden or silver spear (hasta pura). In the era of the Empire, it was awarded, as a rule, to officers of the legions, starting with senior centurions.
Pilum
A polearm bladed weapon of Roman legionnaires, a type of dart designed to be thrown from a short distance at an enemy. Its exact origin has not yet been clarified. Perhaps it was invented by the Latins, or perhaps borrowed from the Samnites or Etruscans. The pilum became widespread in the Republican army of Rome and was in service with legionnaires until the beginning of the 4th century AD. e. It is mainly used by infantrymen, and during the period of the Republican army (late 6th century BC - 27 BC) it was used by a certain type of army - lightly armed velites and heavy infantry hastati. Around 100 BC. General Marius introduces the pilum as part of the equipment of every legionnaire.
Initially it consists of a long iron tip, equal in length to the shaft. The shaft was driven halfway into the tip, and the total length was about 1.5–2 meters. The metal part was thin, up to 1 cm in diameter, 0.6-1 m in length and with a serrated or pyramidal point. During the reign of Caesar, there were various versions of the original type - the tip was either lengthened or shortened. Pilums were also divided into light (up to 2 kg) and heavy (up to 5 kg). Its main difference from a spear was the long iron part. This served to ensure that if the enemy’s shield was hit, it could not be cut with a sword.
The tip of the pilum could be attached using a tube at the end or a flat tongue, which was attached to the shaft with 1-2 rivets. Many darts with a “tongue” along the edges of the flat part of the edges were bent and covered the shaft so that the tip would fit better to it. A well-preserved pilum (about 80 BC) with a second variant of fastening the tip was found in Valencia (Spain) ) and in Oberraden (northern Germany). Thanks to these finds, it is confirmed that by the middle of the 1st century BC. the pilum becomes lighter. Earlier copies of it were discovered in northern Etruria, near Telamon. The tips of these samples were very short - only 25-30 cm in length. There were also pilums with a flat part 57-75 cm long. During the famous military reforms of the military leader Gaius Marius, he noticed that the spear did not always bend when struck, and the enemy could pick it up and use it. To prevent this, one of the rivets is replaced with a wooden pin, which breaks upon impact, and the sides of the tongue are not bent.
Heavy pilums have a shaft that tapers towards the end; at the junction with the tip there is a round heavy counterweight, which should increase the striking force of the spear. This type of pilum is depicted on the Cancilleria relief in Rome, which shows Praetorians armed with them.
Basically, the spear was intended for throwing at the enemy, like piercing weapon was used much less frequently. They threw it before the start hand-to-hand combat at a distance of 7 to 25 meters, lighter samples - up to 65 meters. Even though the pilum simply got stuck in the enemy’s shield without causing significant damage, it made it difficult for the enemy to move in close combat. In this case, the soft shaft of the tip often bent, making it impossible to quickly pull it out or cut it. Using the shield after this became inconvenient and had to be discarded. If the shield remained in the hands of the enemy, the legionnaire who arrived in time stepped on the shaft of the stuck pilum and pulled the enemy’s shield down, forming a convenient gap for striking with a spear or sword. Heavy pilums could, with the force of the blow, penetrate not only a shield, but also an enemy in armor. This has been proven by modern tests. From a distance of 5 meters, the Roman pilum pierces a three-centimeter pine board and a two-centimeter layer of plywood.
Later the pilum gives way to a lighter spiculum. But there is a possibility that these are different names for the same type of weapon. With the decline and collapse of the Roman Empire, regular infantry - legionnaires - become a thing of the past, and along with them, pilums disappear from the battlefield. The era of dominance on the battlefield by heavy cavalry and the long spear begins.
Lancea
Roman cavalry spear.
Josephus mentions that the Roman cavalry defeated the Jewish cavalry thanks to long lance spears. Later, after the crisis of the 3rd century, new models of spears were introduced into the infantry, replacing pilums. New types of throwing spears (appearing after the reforms of Diocletian), according to Vegetius, are vertullum, spicullum and plumbata. The first two were meter darts, and the plumbata was a 60 cm lead-weighted feathered dart.
The Praetorians were supplemented by detachments of lanciarii - bodyguards-spearmen; similar units appeared in the legions to protect especially important persons. The lancea was a service weapon, but a spear was not used indoors, and the lanciarii were not limited in the choice of additional weapons; during the collapse of the empire, such a guard was an attribute of any important commander or, less often, a senator.
Plumbata.
The first mention of the combat use of plumbats dates back to ancient Greece in which warriors used plumbats from about 500 BC, but the most famous use of plumbats in the late Roman and Byzantine armies.
In the description, Vegetia plumbata is a long-range throwing weapon. The heavily armed warriors who served in the Roman legion, in addition to traditional equipment, were equipped with five plumbats, which they wore on inside shield Soldiers used plumbats as an offensive weapon during the first onslaught and as a defensive weapon during an enemy attack. Constant exercise allowed them to achieve such experience in handling weapons that enemies and their horses were amazed before it came to hand-to-hand combat, and even before they came within range of a dart or arrow. Thus, at the same time, warriors on the battlefield combined the qualities of heavy infantry and riflemen. The skirmishers, who fought in front of the formation at the beginning of the battle, also had plumbats in service. Moving back with the start of hand-to-hand combat under the cover of their own, they continued to fire at the enemy. At the same time, Plumbats threw them along a high trajectory, over the heads of those in front. Vegetius specifically stipulates the need to arm the triarii standing in the rear ranks of the formation with plumbats. He also recommended to his readers to use plumbats in siege warfare - both when protecting walls from enemy attacks and when storming enemy fortifications.
The appearance of the plumbata occurs as a result of the development of the same tendency to increase the mass of the weapon to enhance the energy of its throw. However, if the pilum, equipped with a lead sinker, could be thrown only at 20 m, and at this distance it pierced through the shield and the shield-bearer hiding behind it, then the lighter one due to the reduction in the size of the shaft and the massiveness of the iron part of the plumbat tip flew at 50-60 m , which is comparable to the throwing range of a light dart. The plumbatu is distinguished from the latter by its smaller size and a special throwing technique, in which the warrior took the shaft with his fingers by the tail and threw it with a shoulder swing of his arm, like throwing a throwing club or club. In this case, the plumbat shaft became an extension of the thrower’s hand and increased the throwing leverage, and the lead sinker imparted additional kinetic energy to the projectile. Thus, with a size smaller than that of a dart, the plumbata received a larger initial supply of energy, which made it possible to throw it at a distance at least not inferior to the distance of throwing a dart. Moreover, if the dart at the end almost completely wasted the initial throwing energy imparted to it and, even when hitting the target, could not cause any noticeable damage to it, then the plumbata, even at the maximum range of its flight, retained a supply of energy sufficient to hit the victim.
An important advantage of the Romans' opponents was the possession of longer-range weapons, which could be used to shoot closely-formed legions from extreme distances. The destructive effect of such shelling was probably quite insignificant, and its effectiveness was achieved by weakening the enemy's resistance and his confidence in his own strength. An adequate response on the part of the Romans was the use of projectiles that had a greater firing distance and destructive power than the enemy. As noted earlier, plumbata was thrown at a distance equal to the flight range of the dart. But if the dart at the maximum distance turned out to be completely powerless, then the plumbata, even at the end, retained enough energy to hit its victim and incapacitate it. In particular, Vegetius points out this property of plumbata when he says that the Romans “wounded enemies and their horses before it came to hand-to-hand combat, and even before they came within range of a dart or arrow.”
The short shaft of the plumbat and the throwing technique, which did not require much space, allowed the rear ranks of the formation to fire at the enemy also during hand-to-hand combat. In order not to hit those in front, the shells were sent upward at a large angle. Due to the high angle of incidence of the plumbat, it pierced the target from top to bottom, at an angle of 30 to 70 degrees, which made it possible to hit the head, neck and shoulders of a warrior hiding behind a shield. At a time when all the attention of the combatants was turned to the enemy, the shells raining down from above were especially dangerous because “they could neither be seen nor avoided.”
During the African campaign of 530, a plumbata thrown by Belisarius' spearman John of Armenia pierced the helmet of the nephew of the Vandal king Geiseric and inflicted a mortal wound on him, from which he soon died, but the helmet was made of the thickest metal.