The main means of giving a word imagery is the use of it figuratively. The play of direct and figurative meaning gives rise to both aesthetic and expressive effects of a literary text, making this text figurative and expressive.
Based on the nominative (nominal) function of a word and its connection with the subject in the process of cognition of reality, a distinction is made between direct (basic, main, primary, initial) and figurative (derived, secondary, indirect) meanings.
In the derivative meaning, the main, direct meaning and the new, indirect meaning, which appeared as a result of the transfer of the name from one object to another, are combined and coexist. If the word is in direct meaning directly (directly) indicates this or that object, action, property, etc., naming them, then the words in portable meaning, an object is no longer named directly, but through certain comparisons and associations that arise in the minds of native speakers.
AIR– 1) ‘adj. To air (air jet)’;
2) ‘light, weightless ( airy dress)’.
The appearance of figurative meanings in a word makes it possible to save the lexical means of the language without endlessly expanding the vocabulary to denote new phenomena and concepts. If there are some common features between two objects, the name from one, already known, is transferred to another object, newly created, invented or known, which did not have a name before:
DIM– 1) ‘opaque, cloudy ( dim glass)’;
2) ‘matte, not shiny ( dull hairspray, dull hair)’;
3) ‘weak, not bright ( dim light, dull colors)’;
4) ‘lifeless, expressionless ( dull look, dull style)’.
D.N. Shmelev believes that the direct, basic meaning is the one that is not determined by the context (most determined paradigmatically and least syntagmatically):
ROAD– 1) ‘a route of communication, a strip of land intended for movement’;
2) ‘travel, trip’;
3) ‘route’;
4) ‘means achievements of some kind. goals'.
All secondary, figurative meanings depend on the context, on compatibility with other words: to pack('trip'), direct road to success, road to Moscow.
Historically, the relationship between direct, primary and figurative, secondary meaning may change. Thus, in modern Russian the primary meanings for words have not been preserved consume(‘eat, eat’), dense('dormant'), vale('valley'). Word thirst in our time, it has the main direct meaning of ‘need to drink’ and figurative ‘strong, passionate desire’, but ancient Russian texts indicate the primacy of the second, more abstract meaning, since the adjective is often used next to it water.
Paths for transferring values
The transfer of meaning can be carried out in two main ways: metaphorical and metonymic.
Metaphor- this is the transfer of names based on the similarity of features and concepts (metaphor - unexpressed comparison): pin stars; what comb won't you comb your head?
Signs of metaphorical transfer:
- by color similarity ( gold leaves);
- by similarity of shape ( ring boulevards);
- by similarity of object location ( nose boats, sleeve rivers);
- by similarity of actions ( rain drums, wrinkles plow face);
- by similarity of sensations, emotional associations ( gold character, velvet voice);
- by similarity of functions ( electric candle in the lamp extinguish/ignite light, wipers in car).
This classification is quite arbitrary. The proof is a transfer based on several criteria: leg chair(form, place); ladle excavator(function, form).
There are other classifications. For example, prof. Galina Al-dr. Cherkasova considers metaphorical transfer in connection with the category of animateness/inanimateness:
- the action of an inanimate object is transferred to another inanimate object ( fireplace– ‘room stove’ and ‘electric heating device’; wing– ‘birds’, ‘airplane blade, mill’, ‘side extension’);
- animate - also on an animate object, but of a different group ( bear, snake);
- inanimate - to animate ( she blossomed );
- animate - to inanimate ( guard– ‘guard ship’).
The main trends in metaphorical transfer: figurative meanings appear in words that are socially significant in given time. During the Great Patriotic War everyday words were used as metaphors to define military concepts: comb forest, get into boiler . Subsequently, on the contrary, military terms were transferred to other concepts: front work, take on weapons . Sports vocabulary gives many figurative meanings: finish, start, knight's move. With the development of astronautics, metaphors appeared finest hour, escape velocity, dock. Currently big number metaphors associated with the computer sphere: mouse, archive, maternal pay etc.
There are models of metaphorical transfer in language: certain groups of words form certain metaphors.
- professional characteristics of a person ( artist, craftsman, philosopher, shoemaker, clown, chemist);
- names associated with the disease ( ulcer, plague, cholera, delirium);
- names of natural phenomena when they are transferred to human life ( spring life, hail tears);
- names of household items ( rag, mattress etc.);
- transfer of names of animal actions to humans ( bark, moo).
Metonymy(Greek ‘renaming’) is a transfer of name that is based on the contiguity of the characteristics of two or more concepts: paper– ‘document’.
Types of metonymic transfer:
- transfer along spatial contiguity ( audience- 'People', Class– ‘children’): (a) transfer of the name containing to the content ( all village came out city I was all worried embankment, ate plate, read Pushkin ); (b) the name of the material from which the item is made is transferred to the item ( To go to silks, V gold; V scarlet And gold clad woods; dancing gold );
- transfer by adjacency O th – transferring the name of the action to the result ( dictation, essay, cookies, jam, embroidery);
- synecdoche(a) transferring the name of a part of a whole to a whole ( one hundred goals livestock; behind him eye Yes eye needed; he's seven mouths feeds; he is mine right hand ; heart heart gives the news) – often found in proverbs; (b) whole to part ( jasmine– ‘bush’ and ‘flowers’; plum– ‘tree’ and ‘fruit’.
This classification does not cover the entire variety of metonymic transfers that exist in the language.
Sometimes when transferring, the grammatical features of a word are used, for example, plural. number: workers hands, relax on yugas, To go to silks . It is believed that the basis of metonymic transfer is nouns.
In addition to common language figurative values, in language fiction portable ones are also observed use words that are characteristic of the work of a particular writer and are one of the means of artistic representation. For example, from L. Tolstoy: fair And Kind sky("War and Peace"); at A.P. Chekhov: crumbly ("The Last Mohican") cozy lady(“From the Memoirs of an Idealist”), faded aunties("Hopeless"); in the works of K.G. Paustovsky: shy sky(“Mikhailovskaya Grove”), sleepy dawn("Third Date") molten noon("Romantics") sleepy day("Sea Habit") white-blooded bulb(“Book of Wanderings”); from V. Nabokov: cloudy tense day(“Luzhin’s Defense”), etc.
Like metaphor, metonymy can be individually authored - contextual, i.e. conditioned by the contextual use of the word, it does not exist outside of this context: – You’re so stupid, brother! - she said reproachfully handset (E. Meek); Redheads trousers sigh and think(A.P. Chekhov); Short fur coats, sheepskin coats crowded...(M. Sholokhov).
Such figurative meanings, as a rule, are not reflected in dictionary interpretations. Dictionaries reflect only regular, productive, generally accepted hyphens fixed by language practice, which continue to arise, playing a large role in enriching the lexical reserves of the language.
Subject “When a word is used figuratively.”
Target: achieve conscious assimilation of the figurative and expressive capabilities of the word.
Tasks :
- organize student activities to continue studying the lexical meaning and visual and expressive capabilities of a word: show how metaphors, personifications, and epithets are created based on the figurative meaning of words;
- promote the development of the ability to find words with a figurative meaning (tropes) in the text, give an interpretation of words used in a figurative meaning, establish the figurative and figurative function of words, thereby promoting enrichment vocabulary students;
- create favorable conditions for cultivating a sense of respect for masters of words and the formation of cognitive interest in learning the Russian language.
Lesson type : combined.
Lesson Plan
I. Organizational moment.
Greetings
So the bell rang,
We are starting our lesson.
Don't yawn in class
And work and write.
Open your notebooks, write down the number and cool work.Slide 1
II. Checking homework.
Warm-up “Pick a daisy.”
(a chamomile is attached to the board; students, if desired, pluck the petals of the flower and answer the questions on the topic of the previous lesson).
What is vocabulary? (Vocabulary of the language)
In which branch of the science of language is the vocabulary of a language studied? (Lexicology)
What is the lexical meaning of a word? (The main meaning of the word)
How many lexical meanings does a word have? (One or more)
What are words called depending on the number of lexical meanings? (Single-valued and multi-valued) For example:
What meaning is called figurative? (which transfers the name of an item to another item) For example:
What is one of the secrets of the amazing imagery and expressiveness of the Russian language? (There are a lot of words in it that are used not only in a literal but also figurative meaning)
III. Setting the topic and objectives of the lesson.
1. Teacher's word(Slide 2)
Notice the theme written on the screen: "When a word is used figuratively". Are you familiar with this topic? Why then do we return to it again? (We should probably learn something new on this topic)
That's right, we will continue to study the meaning and figurative and expressive capabilities of words. But first, I suggest you take a “short walk to the river” together with the poetess Irina Tokmakova to solve the riddle of one tree. The answer will be the key to the topic of our lesson.
2. Reading of Irina Tokmakova’s poem “Willow” by a student:
Near the river, at the cliff
The willow is crying, the willow is crying.
Maybe,she feels sorry for someone?
Maybeshe's hot in the sun?
Maybe,windplayful
He pulled the willow's pigtail?
Maybe,willow is thirsty?
Maybe we should go ask?
(Handout)
Did you like the poem?
What seemed unusual to you about this poem?
What words indicate that the willow is like a living tree? Name them.
Read these words carefully again. How do they draw the willow tree in the poem? (Crying like a girl)
3. Teacher's word
The poetess I. Tokmakova saw a similarity between a willow tree and a crying girl. However, seeing similarities between different objects is not an easy task. In our lesson, we will learn to observe from poets and writers who have a special gift for noticing what is not seen a common person. Writers and poets constantly use words with figurative meanings in their works.
This is how special means of expression appear in the language -trails (Slide 3) - a word or figure of speech in figuratively, which can “come to life, grow stronger, and be filled with expressive power.”
Write it down in your dictionary.
IV. Mastering new material.
You will find out what trails there are by completing
Exercise 1
Open the textbooks on page 92, read the linguistic text expressively in ex. 259.
What words are you unfamiliar with?
Task 2
(Slide 4)
The Russian language has many means of figurativeness and expressiveness. Meaning of the wordwarm (look)isportable . Types of figurative use are: metaphor, personification, epithet.(Dictionary)
Explain their meaning using a dictionary entry.
(Slide 5 personification
Slide 6 metaphor
Slide 7 epithet)
V. Physical education minute.
Are you probably tired?
Well, then everyone stood up together,
They stomped their feet,
Hands patted.
Twirled, twirled
And everyone sat down at their desks.
We close our eyes tightly,
We count to 5 together.
Open - blink
And we continue to work. (Perform movements following the teacher)
VI. Primary consolidation of new material.
Exercise 1(Slide 8)
Write down the sentences and underline the means of expression in the proposed passages -trails - metaphors, epithets, personifications.
What pictures do you “see” behind these words?
1) You could hear howwas leavingfrom the forest at nightfreezing. Heknockedstickthe trees are getting quieter, getting further away.
2) For a long timethere was a thunderstorm, but on birch trees from leaf to leafjumpingnaughtyraindrops. Hanging on the tipshaking with fear, and, sparkling desperately,jumpinginto a puddle.
Task 2(Slide 9)
Guess the riddles
Riddle 1. Red maidenRiddle 2. For a curly tuft
Sitting in prisonI dragged the fox out of the hole.
And the braid is on the street. To the touch - very smooth,
Tastes like sugar, sweet.
(Folk riddle) (E. Blaginina)
What words indicate that you guessed the riddle correctly?
Find words used figuratively.
Based on what signs did the value transfer occur in the first (humanization) and in the second (comparison)riddles?
What is the name of the technique of “humanizing” the plant in the first riddle? (Personification).
Why is the carrot compared to a fox in the second riddle?
Which general signs the fox and the carrot?
What is this comparison technique called? (Metaphor).
In which riddle do you find the most poetic description of the carrot?
Task 3
Metaphors, epithets, personifications are found not only in riddles. They are also found in works of art. Listen to D. Zuev’s miniature “Melody of Spring”.
Each season has its own music. The snow has faded. In an explosive stream, silver balls hastily roll down from the roofs. Sings melodiously, the drops tick loudly. The beating icicles quietly chime and shatter into pieces, like dropped crystal. And in the bushes it’s as if a silver bell is ringing. This is filled with icicles. The violins of frost fell silent, and just yesterday they spoke in full voice.A ray of sunshine starts the music of spring, and the birds and water sing along with it.( Handout ).
What sounds of spring did you hear?
How do you understand the meaning of the word melody?
Is it used in the title of the miniature in a literal or figurative sense?
Find metaphors, personifications, epithets in the text.
Epithets:“its own music” (intonation expressiveness), “explosive”, “silver”, “beating”, “dropped”, “full”, “quiet”.
Metaphors: “music... of the season”, “silver balls breaking into pieces”, “violins of frost”, “speaking in a full voice”.
Personifications: "the snow has faded”, “the drops are singing”, “the violins were talking”, “the icicles are pouring”, “ Sunbeam starts the music."
VII. Self-test of knowledge.
1. Solve the test
I. Determine which row it is inmetaphor . Slide 10
1. The bow of a ship, the wing of an airplane.
2. Sweet memories, sunny mood.
3. The wind howls, the frost heals.
II. Choose which row you are inpersonification. Slide 11
1. Emerald eyes, golden hands.
2. A mountain of gifts, a lot of wishes.
3 . Angry winter, the forest is dormant.
III. Think about what row they are inepithets . Slide 12
1. Crescent moon, river of time.
2 . Heated argument, heavy feeling, fiery hair.
3. Angry wind, cheerful sun.
(1,3,2) ( Handout).
2. Evaluate your work: 3b. - “5”, 2b. -“4”, 1b. - “3”.
VIII. Summarizing.
1. Determining the degree of implementation of the assigned tasks.
Let's see how well the lesson's objectives have been achieved.
2 Reflection.
1. Task cards
Complete the sentence:
1. Today in class I learned...
2. The best person in the lesson was ...
3. I can praise my classmates for...
4. I can say thank you (to whom?) for (what) ...
5. Today’s lesson was...
2. Find the balls on the desks.
(Slide 13)
If you haveeverything worked outin class, take a pink one,
something didn't work out- blue,
nothing succeeded- yellow.
IX. Homework paragraph 34, ex. 261. (Slide 14)
(Slide 15) Thanks for your work!
Many words in Russian have both direct and figurative meanings. We will talk about what this phenomenon is, how to define a word in a figurative meaning and how this transfer occurs in our article.
About the literal and figurative meaning of the word
More from junior classes School we know that words in the Russian language have a direct meaning, that is, a basic one, directly related to any object or phenomenon. For example, for the noun " exit" it is “an opening in a wall or fence through which one can leave a confined space” (Another exit into the courtyard, hiding behind a secret door).
But in addition to the direct meaning, there is also a figurative meaning of the word. Examples of such meanings in one lexical unit are often numerous. So, the same word " exit" This:
1) a way to get rid of the problem (Finally we came up with a decent exit from the situation);
2) quantity of products produced (As a result exit details turned out to be slightly lower than expected);
3) appearance on stage ( Exit the main character was met with a standing ovation);
4) rock outcrop (In this place exit limestone made the rocks almost white).
What influences the transfer of the meaning of a word
Depending on what specific feature can be associated with the transfer of the name of one object to another, linguists distinguish three types of it:
- Metaphor (transfer is associated with the similarity of characteristics of different objects).
- Metonymy (based on the contiguity of objects).
- Synecdoche (transfer general meaning for part of it).
The figurative meaning of the word based on the similarity of functions is also considered separately.
Now let's take a closer look at each of the listed types.
What is a metaphor
As mentioned above, a metaphor is a transfer of meaning based on the similarity of features. For example, if objects are similar in shape (the dome of a building - the dome of the sky) or in color (golden jewelry - golden sun).
The metaphor also implies the similarity of other meanings:
- by function ( heart human - the main organ, heart city - main area);
- by the nature of the sound ( grumbles old lady - grumbles kettle on the stove);
- by location ( tail animal - tail trains);
- on other grounds ( green I am youth - not mature; deep melancholy - it is difficult to get out of it; silk hair - smooth; soft the look is pleasant).
Figurative meaning words in the case of metaphor can also be based on the animation of inanimate objects, and vice versa. For example: the whisper of leaves, gentle warmth, nerves of steel, an empty look, etc.
Metaphorical rethinking based on the convergence of objects by seemingly different signs: gray mouse - gray fog - gray day - gray thoughts; sharp knife - sharp mind - sharp eye - sharp corners (dangerous events) in life.
Metonymy
Another trope that uses words used figuratively is - This is metonymy. It is possible under the condition of contiguity of concepts. For example, transferring the name of the premises ( Class) to the group of children in it ( Class rose to meet the teacher) is a metonymy. The same thing happens when you transfer the name of an action to its result (do baking bread - fresh bakery) or properties on their owner (have bass- the aria was sung by the talented bass).
The same principles apply to the transfer of the author’s name to his works ( Gogol- staged in the theater Gogol; Bach- listen Bach) or the name of the container for the contents ( plate- he already two plates ate). Adjacency (proximity) is also monitored when transferring the name of a material to a product made from it ( silk- she in silks walked) or tools for the person working with him ( braid- apparently here braid walked).
Metonymy is an important way of word formation process
With the help of metonymy, any word in a figurative meaning acquires more and more new semantic loads. So, for example, the word " node" even in ancient times it was obtained by transferring the meaning of “a rectangular piece of material into which some objects are tied” (take with you node). And today in dictionaries other meanings have been added to it, which appeared through metonymy:
- the place where the lines of roads or rivers intersect or converge;
- part of a mechanism consisting of tightly interacting parts;
- an important place where something is concentrated.
Thus, as you can see, the new figurative meaning of words, which arose with the help of metonymy, serves the development of vocabulary. By the way, this also allows you to save speech effort, since it makes it possible to replace an entire descriptive construction with just one word. For example: "early Chekhov" instead of "Chekhov in the early period of his work" or " audience” instead of “people sitting in a room listening to a lecturer.”
Synecdoche is considered one of the types of metonymy in linguistics.
What is synecdoche
Words with a figurative meaning, examples of which were given earlier, acquired a new semantic load due to some similarity or proximity of concepts. And synecdoche is a way of indicating an object through the mention of its characteristic detail or distinctive feature. That is, as mentioned above, this is a transfer of the general meaning of a word to its part.
Here are some of the most common types of this trope.
How and when is synecdoche used?
Synecdoche always depends on the context or situation, and in order to understand which words are used figuratively, the author must first describe the hero or his environment. For example, it is difficult to determine from a sentence taken out of context who we are talking about: “ Beard blew smoke from a clay pipe.” But from the previous story everything becomes clear: “Next to him, with the appearance of an experienced sailor, sat a man with a thick beard.”
Thus, synecdoche can be called an anaphoric trope, focused on subtext. The designation of an object by its characteristic detail is used in colloquial speech and in literary texts to give them grotesqueness or humorous overtones.
The figurative meaning of a word: examples of transfer by similarity of functions
Some linguists also separately consider the transfer of meaning, in which the condition that phenomena have identical functions is met. For example, a janitor is a person who cleans the yard, and a janitor in a car is a device for cleaning windows.
A new meaning also appeared for the word “counter,” which was used to mean “a person who counts something.” Now the meter is also a device.
Depending on which words in a figurative meaning arise as a result of the named process, their associative connection with the original meaning may disappear completely over time.
How sometimes the process of transference affects the underlying meaning of a word
As already mentioned, as figurative meanings develop, a word can expand its semantic meaning. For example, the noun " the basis" meant only: "a longitudinal thread running along the fabric." But as a result of the transfer, this meaning expanded and was added to it: “the main part, the essence of something,” as well as “a part of a word without an ending.”
Yes, the emerging figurative meaning of polysemantic words leads to an increase in their expressive properties and contributes to the development of the language as a whole, but it is interesting that at the same time some meanings of the word become obsolete and are put out of use. For example, the word “ nature" has several meanings:
- Nature ( Nature attracts me with its purity).
- Human temperament (passionate) nature).
- Natural conditions, environment (picture from life).
- Replacing money with goods or products (pay in kind).
But the first of the listed values, with which, by the way, given word and was borrowed from French, is already outdated, in dictionaries it is designated as “obsolete.” The rest, which developed with the help of transference on its basis, are actively functioning in our time.
How words are used figuratively: examples
Words with a figurative meaning are often used as means of expression fiction, media, and advertising. In the latter case, the technique of deliberately colliding different meanings of one word in the subtext is very popular. So, oh mineral water the advertisement says: “A source of cheerfulness.” The same technique is visible in the slogan for shoe polish: “Brilliant protection.”
The authors works of art To give them brightness and imagery, they use not only the already known figurative meaning of words, but also create their own versions of metaphors. For example, Blok’s “silence blooms” or Yesenin’s “birch Rus'”, which over time became very popular.
There are also words in which the transfer of meaning has become “dry”, “erased”. As a rule, we use such words not to convey an attitude towards something, but to name an action or object (go to a goal, the bow of a boat, the back of a chair, etc.). In lexicology they are called nominative metaphors, and in dictionaries, by the way, they are not designated as figurative meaning.
Incorrect use of words in a figurative meaning
In order for words in the literal and figurative meaning to always be in their places in the text and be justified, you need to follow the rules for their use.
It should be remembered that the use of metaphor requires the presence of similarities in the characteristics of the object of the name and in the meaning of the word applied to it. Meanwhile, this is not always observed, and the image used as a metaphor sometimes does not evoke the necessary associations and remains unclear. For example, a journalist, speaking about a ski race, calls it a “ski bullfight” or, reporting about inanimate objects, designates their number as a duet, trio or quartet.
Such a pursuit of “beauty” leads to the opposite result, causing the reader to be perplexed and sometimes laugh, as in the case when it was said about Tolstoy’s portrait: “Tolstoy was hanging in the office by the window.”
What is the literal and figurative meaning of the word?
- What is the literal and figurative meaning of a word?
These are two terms from word formation - the science of replenishing the vocabulary of a language at its own expense, and not by borrowing from other languages.
According to tradition, some words of a language can distinguish two or more lexical meanings related to each other in some way. This relationship is described, for example, in the book by V.V. Vinogradov “Russian language. The grammatical doctrine of the word”, as well as in academic grammars, according to which school textbooks are compiled.
It is believed that a word with one - direct - meaning is capable in some cases, due to semantic transfer by the similarity of phenomena (metaphor) or by the contiguity of the functions of phenomena (metonymy), to receive an additional - figurative meaning.
Thus, the verb “wound” can have a direct meaning “to injure, damage, destroy the tissues of the human body” (A soldier was wounded by police with a pistol) and a figurative meaning “to hurt a person’s feelings, offend, insult” (E was wounded by the words of a classmate).
In a similar way, we can talk about the direct and figurative meanings of many words: “go, poisonous, transparent, shell” and so on.
It is believed that all figurative meanings of a word arise on the basis of one thing - the direct one, that is, the direct meaning is the initial one for all figurative ones, and figurative ones are always secondary.
It must be said that the issue of figurative meanings is quite controversial: sometimes it is not possible to determine what is primary and what is secondary in the same “word”. Or the mechanism of transfer is unclear (why is a person sometimes called the word “goat”?). Or there is no semantic connection at all between words that sound the same (a person is walking / a dress is walking for her). In such cases, we no longer talk about literal and figurative meaning (together they are defined by the term “polysemy”), but about homonyms.
This is a problem of modern linguistics that has yet to be clearly resolved. - Well, yes
- this is when the words don’t add up, for example, eat like a bear, this is an overvalued meaning
- The direct meaning of the word is its specific wording, that is, what does it mean in literally words, but figurative, that is, used with a slightly different meaning, not natural for the surrounding world, for example, the word tail... The direct meaning is the tail of a dog - the tail of a creature... and the figurative tail is, for example, correcting tails - that is, correcting twos) something like this)
- ambiguous and ambiguous words. Direct and figurative meanings of the word Zhdanova L. A. A word can have one lexical meaning, then it is unambiguous or several (two or more) meanings; such a word is called polysemantic. There are enough unambiguous words in the language a large number of, but the most frequent, commonly used words are usually ambiguous. There are many unambiguous words among terms, names of tools, professions, animals, plants, etc. Unambiguous, for example, are the words dualism, plane, neuropathologist, roe deer, poplar, tulle, trolleybus, wattle fence. Polysemantic words can have from two to more than two dozen meanings (for example, the word go has 26 meanings in Ozhegov’s Dictionary). If a word is polysemous, there is a semantic connection between its meanings (not necessarily all at once). For example, for the word road in Ozhegov’s Dictionary the following meanings are highlighted: 1. A strip of land intended for movement. Asphalt road. 2. A place through which one must pass or drive, a route to follow. On the way to the house. 3. Travel, being on the road. Tired from the road. 4. Course of action, direction of activity. The road to success. The first three meanings have a common component of movement in space, the fourth meaning is connected with the second: both contain the meaning of direction (in the second meaning the direction of movement in space, and in the fourth in activity, in development). In a polysemantic word, the direct (main) meaning of the word and figurative (derived) meanings are distinguished. The figurative meaning is the result of the transfer of the name (sound-letter means) to other phenomena of reality, which begin to be designated by the same word. There are two types of name transfer: metaphor and metonymy. It should be noted that the question of which meaning is direct and which is figurative should be resolved on the modern linguistic cross-section, and not transferred to the field of language history. For example, the word cling in Ozhegov’s Dictionary is interpreted as follows...
- line and bend
- making an elephant out of moss is a figurative meaning, for example, we can’t make an elephant out of a moss, but the direct meaning is to confuse everything, transform the real into something else
With polysemy, one of the meanings of a word is direct, and all the others are figurative.The direct meaning of a word is its basic lexical meaning. It is directly directed to the designated object, phenomenon, action, sign, immediately evokes an idea of them and is least dependent on the context. Words most often appear in direct meaning.
The figurative meaning of a word is its secondary meaning, which arose on the basis of the direct one.
Toy, -i, f. 1. A thing used for playing. Kids toys. 2. transfer One who blindly acts according to someone else's will is an obedient instrument of someone else's will (disapproved). To be a toy in someone's hands.
The essence of the transfer of meaning is that the meaning is transferred to another object, another phenomenon, and then one word is used as the name of several objects at the same time. In this way, the polysemy of the word is formed.Depending on the basis on which the value transfer occurs, there are three main types of value transfer:
metaphor,
metonymy,
synecdoche.
Metaphor (from the Greek metaphora transfer) is the transfer of a name by similarity:
ripe apple eyeball (shape);
a person's nose a ship's nose (by location);
chocolate bar chocolate tan (by color);
bird wing airplane wing (by function);
the dog howled; the wind howled (according to the nature of the sound);
and etc.
Metonymy (from the Greek metonymia renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their contiguity:
the water boils, the kettle boils;
porcelain dish tasty dish;
native gold Scythian gold
and etc.
Synecdoche (from the Greek synekdoche co-impliation) is the transfer of the name of a whole to its part and vice versa:
thick currants; ripe currants;
beautiful mouth extra mouth (about an extra person in the family);
big head smart head
and etc.
In the process of developing figurative meanings, a word can be enriched with new meanings as a result of narrowing or expanding the basic meaning. Over time, figurative meanings can become direct.It is possible to determine in what meaning a word is used only in context.
We sat on the CORNER of the bastion, so we could see everything in both directions. In Tarakanovo, as in the most remote corner of the bear, there was no place for secrets.
In the first sentence, the word ANGLE is used in its literal meaning: the place where two sides of something meet or intersect. And in stable combinations in a blind corner, bearish corner, the meaning of the word will be figurative: in a blind corner in a remote area, bearish corner is a blind place.IN explanatory dictionaries the direct meaning of the word is given first, and the figurative meanings are numbered starting from 2. The meaning recorded as figurative recently comes with the mark transfer. :
Wooden, oh, oh. 1. Made from wood. 2. transfer Motionless, unexpressive. Wooden facial expression. #9830;Wood oil is a cheap grade of olive oil - direct when words have their own meaning, and figuratively another, for example, golden hands, in the literal sense, hands of gold, and figuratively, hardworking hands.
- The direct meaning of a word is basic and reflects the direct correlation of the word with the called object, attribute, action, phenomenon.
The portable meaning of a word arises on the basis of the direct result of transferring the name of one object (sign, action, etc.) to another, in some way similar to it. Thus, the figurative meaning of a word reflects the connection between the word and the called phenomenon of reality not directly, but through comparison with other words. For example, the direct meaning of the word rain precipitation in the form of drops, but a portable stream of small particles of something, falling in abundance.
One word can have several figurative meanings. So, the word burn has the following figurative meanings: 1) to be in the heat, in a feverish state (the patient is burning); 2) blush from a rush of blood (cheeks burn); 3) sparkle, shine (eyes glow); 4) experience something strong feeling(burn with love for poetry).
Over time, figurative meanings can become direct. For example, the word nose is now used in its literal meaning if we're talking about and about the organ of smell, located on the face of a person or on the muzzle of animals, and about the front of the vessel.
It is possible to determine in what meaning a word is used only in context: a drop of water, a drop of pity; insatiable insatiable animal, insatiable ambition; gold golden ring, Golden autumn. The figurative meaning is one of the meanings polysemantic word and is given in explanatory dictionaries with the mark translation. .
1. Here, where the vault of heaven looks so sluggishly at the skinny earth, - here, plunged into an iron sleep, tired nature sleeps (F. Tyutchev). 2. The sun is golden. Buttercup is single. The river is silver and playful with its water (K. Balmont).
Direct meaning of the word - this is its main lexical meaning. It is directly directed to the designated object, phenomenon, action, sign, immediately evokes an idea of them and is least dependent on the context. Words most often appear in their literal meaning.
figurative meaning of the word - this is its secondary meaning, which arose on the basis of the direct one.
Toy, -i, f. 1. A thing used for playing. Kids toys. 2. transfer One who blindly acts according to someone else's will is an obedient instrument of someone else's will (disapproved). To be a toy in someone's hands.
The essence of the transfer of meaning is that the meaning is transferred to another object, another phenomenon, and then one word is used as the name of several objects at the same time. In this way, the polysemy of the word is formed. Depending on the basis on which sign the transfer of meaning occurs, there are three main types of transfer of meaning: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche.
Metaphor (from the Greek metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name by similarity:
ripe apple - eyeball (in shape); the nose of a person - the bow of a ship (by location); chocolate bar - chocolate tan (by color); bird wing - airplane wing (by function); the dog howled - the wind howled (according to the nature of the sound); and etc.
Metonymy (from the Greek metonymia - renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their contiguity:
water boils - the kettle boils; a porcelain dish is a delicious dish; native gold - Scythian gold, etc.
Synecdoche (from the Greek synekdoche - co-implication) is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part and vice versa:
thick currant - ripe currant; a beautiful mouth - an extra mouth (about an extra person in the family); big head - smart head, etc.
20. Stylistic use of homonyms.
Homonyms are words that sound the same but have different meanings. As is known, within homonymy, lexical and morphological homonyms are distinguished. Lexical homonyms belong to the same part of speech and coincide in all their forms. For example: a key (from a lock) and a (icy) key.
Morphological homonymy is the homonymy of individual grammatical forms of the same word: three is the numeral and the imperative form of the verb to rub.
These are homophones, or phonetic homonyms, words and forms different meanings, which sound the same, although they are written differently. flu - mushroom,
Homonyms also include homographs - words that have the same spelling but differ in stress: castle - castle
21. Stylistic use of synonyms.
Synonyms are words that denote the same concept, therefore, identical or similar in meaning.
Synonyms that have the same meaning, but differ in stylistic coloring. Among them, two groups are distinguished: a) synonyms belonging to different functional styles: live (neutral interstyle) - live (official business style); b) synonyms belonging to the same functional style, but having different emotional and expressive shades. smart (with a positive coloring) - brainy, big-headed (roughly familiar coloring).
semantic-stylistic. They differ both in meaning and stylistic coloring. For example: wander, wander, hang around, stagger.
Synonyms perform various functions in speech.
Synonyms are used in speech to clarify thoughts: He seemed a little lost, as if he was afraid (I. S. Turgenev).
Synonyms are used to contrast concepts, which sharply highlights their differences, especially strongly emphasizing the second synonym: He actually did not walk, but dragged along without lifting his feet from the ground
One of the most important functions of synonyms is the substitution function, which allows you to avoid repeating words.
Synonyms are used to construct a special stylistic figure
Stringing synonyms can, if handled ineptly, indicate the author’s stylistic helplessness.
Inappropriate use of synonyms gives rise to a stylistic error - pleonasm (“memorable souvenir”).
Two types of pleonasms: syntactic and semantic.
Syntactic appears when the grammar of the language makes it possible to make some function words redundant. “I know he will come” and “I know he will come.” The second example is syntactically redundant. It's not a mistake.
Positively, pleonasm can be used to prevent information loss (to be heard and remembered).
Also, pleonasm can serve as a means of stylistic design of a statement and a technique of poetic speech.
Pleonasm should be distinguished from tautology - repetition of unambiguous or the same words (which can be a special stylistic device).
Synonymy creates wide possibilities for selecting lexical means, but searching for the exact word costs the author a lot of work. Sometimes it is not easy to determine exactly how synonyms differ, what semantic or emotional-expressive shades they express. And it is not at all easy to choose from a multitude of words the only correct, necessary one.